Handbook of Catchment Management

About the Editors Robert C. Ferrier is Director of the Centre of Expertise for Waters (CREW) at the Hydro Nation International Centre, James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen, Scotland. Alan Jenkins is Deputy Director and Director of Science at the UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, UK.

• List of Contributors xviiPreface xxiAcknowledgements xxiv1 Introduction to Catchment Management in 2020 3Robert C. Ferrier and Alan Jenkins1.1 Introduction 31.2 Historical Synopsis 31.3 Recent Developments and Emerging Issues 61.3.1 Value of Water 61.3.2 Evaluation of the Global Resource 91.3.3 Water Scarcity and Drought 111.3.4 Emerging Technologies 141.3.5 Energy Transition 151.3.6 Water Quality 151.4 Policy Development 171.5 Working with Nature, Natural Capital, and Ecosystem Services 181.6 Summary 19References 202 Water Diplomacy 25Rozemarijn ter Horst 252.1 Introduction 252.2 Short Historical Synopsis 262.2.1 What Is Water Diplomacy? 272.2.2 Water conflict and cooperation 282.3 Current Solutions 282.3.1 Who Practises Water Diplomacy? 282.3.2 How Is Water Diplomacy Done? 312.4 New Insights 372.5 Future Knowledge Requirements 38References 393 Water Financing and Pricing Mechanisms 47Alan D. A. Sutherland and Colin McNaughton3.1 Introduction 473.2 Short Historical Synopsis 493.3 Current Solutions 523.3.1 Regulation by Contract (Franchise Regulation) 533.3.2 Rate of Return Regulation 533.3.3 Incentive-Based Regulation 543.3.4 The Regulatory Governance Framework 583.4 New Insights 603.5 Future Knowledge Requirements 64References 654 Defining ‘Smart Water’ 67David Lloyd Owen4.1 Introduction 674.2 Historical Synopsis 694.3 Current Solutions 724.4 New Insights – The Digital Disruption 734.4.1 Adopting New Technologies 734.4.2 Decarbonising Water and Wastewater as a Resource 754.4.3 Water and Sewerage Metering 764.4.4 Demand Management, Tariffs, and Smarter White Goods 774.4.5 Sensors 784.4.6 ‘Digital’ Water 794.4.7 Rural–Urban Interface (New Storage and Green Infiltration) 824.5 Future Knowledge Requirements 844.6 Discussion and Conclusions 86References 875 Water, Food, and Energy Nexus 93Alex Smajgl5.1 Introduction 935.2 Historical Synopsis 945.2.1 Nexus Conceptualisations 945.2.2 Nexus-Focused Research 965.2.3 Nexus-Type Implementations and Case Studies 975.2.4 Nexus Interactions and Trade-off Examples 985.2.4.1 Hydropower – Fish 985.2.4.2 Irrigation – Food Crops – Energy Crops 995.2.4.3 Energy Pricing – Irrigated Agriculture – Availability of Surface and Groundwater 995.2.4.4 Desalinisation – Energy Costs – Water Supply 1005.3 Current Solutions 1005.3.1 Sustainability and Nexus Outcomes 1005.3.2 Different Types of Water 1025.3.3 Intervention Points to ‘Manage the Nexus’ 1035.3.4 Research Solutions for Improved Trade-off Assessments 1045.3.5 Innovative Engagement Processes to Steer Cross-Sector Dialogue 1085.4 New Insights 1105.5 Future Knowledge Requirements 112References 1146 Groundwater Management 125Stephen Foster and Alan MacDonald6.1 Introduction 1256.1.1 Importance of Groundwater Storage 1256.1.2 Dynamics of Groundwater Flow Systems 1266.1.3 Evaluation of Groundwater Recharge 1286.1.4 Processes of Groundwater Quality Degradation 1296.1.5 Aquifer Pollution Vulnerability and Quality Protection 1326.2 Groundwater Management – Needs and Approaches 1336.2.1 Impacts of Groundwater Resource Development 1336.2.2 Surface-Water Impacts of Ineffective Management 1356.2.3 Key Components of Groundwater Resources Management 1356.2.3.1 Demand vs. Supply Side Interventions 1356.2.3.2 Identifying Links with the Rest of the Water Cycle 1366.2.3.3 Climate Change 1376.2.3.4 Irrigation 1376.2.4 Approaches to Groundwater Quality Protection 1386.2.4.1 Potential Polluter Pays for Protection 1386.2.4.2 Groundwater-Friendly Rural Land Use 1396.2.5 Need for Adaptive and Precautionary Management 1406.3 New Insights 1406.3.1 Evolving Paradigm of Sound Governance 1406.3.2 Integrated Policy to Strengthen Governance 1426.3.2.1 Vertical Integration Within the Water Sector 1426.3.2.2 Horizontal Integration Beyond the Water Sector 1436.3.3 Conjunctive Use of Groundwater and Surface Water 1436.3.4 Groundwater Management Planning 145Acknowledgements 148References 1497 Diffuse Pollution Management 153Andrew Vinten7.1 Introduction 1537.1.1 Attributes of Diffuse Pollution 1547.2 Historical synopsis: Challenges for diffuse pollution management 1557.2.1 Recognition of Diffuse Pollution as an Issue 1557.2.2 Identification of Sources of Diffuse Pollution 1597.2.3 Development of Programmes of Measures to Combat Diffuse Pollution 1617.3 Current solutions 1627.3.1 Evidence of Effectiveness of Measures 1627.3.2 Appropriateness of Measures in Specific Contexts 1667.3.3 The Role of Governance and Other Factors in Effecting Behaviour Change 1677.4 A Way Forward? 169References 1748 Emerging Contaminants and Pollutants of Concern 183Pei Wang and Yonglong Lu8.1 Introduction 1838.2 Short Historical Synopsis 1868.2.1 Pollution Pathways 1868.2.2 Life Cycle Analysis 1888.2.3 Flows in Waste Management 1898.2.4 Storage in the Environment 1898.2.5 Alternatives or Mitigation Technologies for PFOA/PFO 1908.3 Current Solutions 1908.4 New Insights 1918.4.1 Multi‐contaminants: Improved Risk Ranking 1918.4.2 Heavy Metals 1918.4.3 Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals 1938.4.4 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 1948.4.5 Persistent Organic Pollutants 1948.4.6 What Is the Balance of the Cost from Production, Monitoring to Remediation of Emerging Pollutants? 1968.4.7 What Is the Balance of the Attitude Among Different Stakeholders Including Government, Industry, Academia, and Public? 1978.4.8 Government 1978.4.9 Industry 1988.4.10 Academia 1998.4.11 Public 1998.5 Future Knowledge Requirements 1998.5.1 Regulations on the Production‐Demand Chain to Help Develop Low‐Toxicity Substitutes 1998.5.2 Highly Efficient Methods to Remove the Pollutants in Various Wastes 2008.5.3 Develop Specific Criteria and Standards for More Effective Risk Assessment and Environmental Management 2008.5.4 Ecosystem‐Based Management for Prevention from Environmental Impacts of Emerging Pollutants 201References 2019 Flood Management 205Mark Fletcher9.1 Introduction 2059.1.1 The Water Cycle and Flooding 2059.2 Historical Synopsis and Current Understanding 2089.2.1 Flood Warning 2089.2.2 UK Overview 2089.2.3 Legislative Framework 2099.2.4 Resilience to Flooding 2099.2.5 Flood Categorisation 2109.3 Current Solutions 2139.3.1 Coping with Extreme Flooding 2139.3.2 How to Cope (in Advance of a Major Flood Event) 2139.3.3 Flood Asset Management 2149.4 New Insights 2149.4.1 Case Studies: (A) Leeds Flood Alleviation Scheme, Leeds, UK 2149.4.1.1 Scheme Development 2149.4.1.2 Digital Construction and Collaboration 2159.4.1.3 Replacing the Weirs 2159.4.1.4 Linear Defences in the City Centre 2169.4.1.5 Eliminating Another Barrier 2169.4.1.6 Integrated Urban Drainage Model 2169.4.1.7 The Cutting Edge 2169.4.2 Case Studies: (B) Skipton Flood Alleviation Scheme, Skipton, UK 2219.4.2.1 The Short- and Long-Term Benefits from a Sustainable Development Perspective 2249.4.2.2 Economic Benefits 2249.4.2.3 Environmental Benefits 2259.4.2.4 Social Benefits 2259.4.2.5 Cutting Edge Aspects 2259.4.2.6 Transferability – A Model for Work Elsewhere 2269.4.2.7 Planning Impact on the Scheme 2279.4.2.8 The Role of SMART Design in Flood Management 2289.4.2.9 SMART Control 2299.4.2.10 Automatic PLC Control 2309.4.2.11 3D Modelling 2309.4.3 Case Studies: (C) Connswater Community Greenway, Belfast, UK 2339.4.4 Case Studies: (D) Freckleton Floodbank Breach, River Ribble, Lancashire, UK 2339.4.4.1 Introduction 2339.4.4.2 Possible Reasons for the Failure of the Embankment 2379.4.4.3 Good Working Practice 2399.5 Future Challenges 2419.5.1 Climate Change – A Global Perspective 2419.5.2 Population and Urbanisation 2429.5.3 Digital 2429.5.4 Nature Based Solutions (NBS) 242References 24310 Ecological Restoration 245Laurence Carvalho, Iain D. M. Gunn, Bryan M. Spears, and Anne J. Dobel10.1 Introduction 24510.2 Short Historical Synopsis 24610.2.1 Restoration Success (or Lack of It) 24610.2.2 Timescales in Ecological Recovery 24910.3 Target-Setting, Monitoring, and Assessment 25010.4 Current Restoration Approaches 25010.4.1 Rivers 25110.4.2 Environmental Flows 25210.4.3 Lakes 25410.4.3.1 Biomanipulation 25510.4.3.2 Artificial Mixing and Aeration 25610.4.3.3 Chemical Treatment 25610.4.3.4 Sediment Removal 25710.4.3.5 Short-Term Mitigation of Harmful Algal Blooms – Poorly Evidenced Lake Restoration Methods 25710.4.4 Ponds 25810.5 New Insights, Innovation, and Knowledge Gaps 25910.5.1 Circular Economies – Resource Recovery 25910.5.2 Nature-Based Solutions and Payment for Ecosystem Services 26010.5.3 Building Climate Change Resilience 26010.5.4 Developing a Systemic Approach and Re-wilding 262References 26311 Water, Sanitation, and Health: Progress and Obstacles to Achieving the SDGs 271Emmanuel M. Akpabio and John S. Rowan11.1 Introduction 27111.2 Theoretical and Historical Basis of Water, Sanitation, and Health Nexus 27311.3 Understanding Current WaSH Management Practices in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case of Nigeria and Malawi 27811.4 Understanding the Challenges Associated with Achieving Improved WaSH Services Delivery for Sub-Saharan Africa 29611.5 Key Insights, Lessons, and Future Knowledge 29911.5.1 A Lack of Nexus Approach 30011.5.2 Governance Challenge and Poor Institutional Capacities 30111.5.3 Cultural and Religious Values 30111.5.4 Excessive Influence of External Actors and Agencies 30311.5.5 Prioritising and Strengthening Catchment-Based Management Approach to WaSH Services Delivery 30311.5.6 Climate Change Impact and Access to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene 304Acknowledgements 305References 30512 The Legal and Institutional Framework for Basin Management Across Governance Levels 309Susanne Schmeier12.1 Introduction 30912.2 The Conceptual Framework – Legal and Institutional Dimensions of River Basin Management 31112.2.1 From Local to Transboundary – A Level Perspective on River Basin Management 31112.2.2 The River Basin Management Cycle 31412.2.3 Combining the Level and the Cyclical Approach 31512.3 From Concept to Practice – The (Mal-)Functioning of Legal and Institutional Frameworks 31612.3.1 River Basin Management in Europe – High Complexity 31612.3.1.1 The Rhine River Basin – A High Density of Legal and Institutional Instruments 31612.3.1.2 The Danube River Basin – Complex Management Mechanisms for a Complex Basin 32112.3.2 River Basin Management Across Levels in the Mekong River Basin – A Patchy Framework 32312.3.3 River Basin Management in Southern Africa – Increasing Integration in the Orange River Basin 32712.4 Conclusions 331References 33213 Scotland the ‘Hydro Nation’: Linking Policy, Science, Industry, Regulation in Scotland and Internationally 339Barry Greig and Jon Rathjen13.1 Introduction 33913.2 Scotland’s Water Environment 33913.3 Industry Vision 34113.4 Scotland: The Hydro Nation 34113.5 Value 34313.6 Hydro Nation: Strategy and Structure 34313.7 Hydro Nation Strategy: National Theme 34613.8 Water Supply and Demand Management 34713.9 Private Supplies and Rural Provision 34713.10 Regulation and Governance 34813.11 Hydro Nation Strategy: International Theme 34913.12 Scotland and Malawi 35013.13 Hydro Nation Strategy: Knowledge Theme 35213.14 Hydro Nation Strategy: Innovation Theme 35213.15 Hydro Nation Impact 35313.16 Emerging Policy Issues for Scotland 355References 35714 Yorkshire Integrated Catchment Solutions Programme (iCASP): A New Model for Research-Based Catchment Management 359Janet C. Richardson, Marie Ferré, Benjamin L. Rabb, Jennifer C. Armstrong, Julia Martin-Ortega, David M. Hodgson, Thomas D. M Willis, Richard Grayson, Poppy Leeder, and Joseph Holden14.1 Introduction 35914.2 Study Area: River Ouse Drainage Basin, Yorkshire 36014.2.1 Catchment Challenges 36114.3 The iCASP Model 36414.3.1 Partnership Working 36414.3.2 Principles of Working 36914.3.3 Project Development Process 36914.3.3.1 Outputs 37314.3.4 Impact Tracking 37414.3.5 The Network 37614.4 New Insights and Highlights 37614.5 Conclusions 380Acknowledgements 380References 38015 Integrated Management in Singapore 385Cecilia Tortajada and Rachel Yan Ting Koh15.1 Introduction 38515.2 Institutional and Legal Frameworks 38615.3 Overall Policy and Planning 38815.4 The Search for Alternative Sources of Water 38915.5 NEWater: From Concept to Implementation 39315.6 NEWater: Water Source Looking to the Future 39615.7 Final Thoughts: Public Engagement, Education, and Outreach Strategies to Promote Acceptance 400References 40116 Flood and Drought Emergency Management 409Miaomiao Ma and Song Han16.1 Severe Flooding on the Huai River in 2007 40916.1.1 Introduction 40916.1.2 Background Hydrological Situation 40916.1.3 Challenges 41216.1.4 Current Approach to Meeting the Challenges 41316.1.5 Lessons Learned 41416.1.5.1 Leave the Flood More Space 41416.1.5.2 Optimise Flood Control Regulations 41516.1.5.3 Moderating Flood Risks 41516.1.6 Future Work 41516.2 Severe Drought in South-west Region of China in 2010 41616.2.1 Introduction and Background 41616.2.2 Challenges 41816.2.3 Current Approach to Meeting the Challenges 42016.2.4 Recovery After the Drought Event 42316.2.5 Lessons Learned 42416.2.6 Future Work 426References 42617 The River Chief System in China 429Tan Xianqiang17.1 Introduction 42917.1.1 Components of the RCS 43017.2 Short Historical Synopsis 43217.3 Current Solutions 43317.3.1 RCS on the Chishui River as a Demonstration 43317.3.2 New Insights 43417.4 Future Knowledge Requirements 438Acknowledgement 43918 Water Resources Management in the Colorado River Basin 441Alan Butler, Terrance Fulp, James Prairie, and Amy Witherall18.1 Introduction and Background 44118.1.1 Geography and Hydrology 44218.1.2 Legal and Policy Framework 44418.2 Current Challenge – Imbalance of Water Supply and Demand 45018.3 Recent Approaches to Meeting Challenges 45218.3.1 The Collaborative, Incremental Approach 45218.3.2 Interim Surplus Guidelines and California ‘4.4 Plan’ 45318.3.3 2007 Interim Guidelines 45518.3.4 Minutes 319 and 323 45518.3.5 Drought Contingency Plans in the United States and Mexico 45718.3.6 Reclamation’s Role 45818.4 Future Thoughts and Considerations 459References 46019 Development in the Northern Rivers of Australia 465Ian Watson, Andrew Ash, Cuan Petheram, Marcus Barber, and Chris Stokes19.1 Introduction 46519.2 Context for Northern Development 46819.3 Biophysical Characteristics and Constraints 47519.3.1 Physiography, Climate, and Hydrology 47619.3.1.1 Surface Water – Groundwater Connectivity 47819.3.2 Environment and Ecology 48019.3.3 Potential Impacts and Their Management 48119.4 Catchment Governance and Management 48319.4.1 Roles and Responsibilities of Government in Managing Catchments 48319.4.2 Commonwealth Government 48319.4.3 State and Territory Government 48419.4.4 Statutory Bodies with a Role in Catchment Management 48519.4.5 Community Organisations, Emerging Voices 48519.4.6 The Role of Indigenous People in Catchment Management 48519.4.7 Development Agendas and the Protection of the Natural and Cultural Values of Northern Australian Rivers 48619.5 Development Opportunities 48719.5.1 Background 48719.5.2 Land and Water Resources 48719.5.2.1 Soils and Land Suitability 48719.5.2.2 Surface and Groundwater 48819.5.3 Primary Production Opportunities 48819.6 Conclusions 489Acknowledgements 490References 49020 Catchment Management of Lake Simcoe, Canada 499Jill C. Crossman20.1 Introduction to the Lake Simcoe Case Study: A History of Problems 49920.2 History of Pollution 50120.2.1 Point Sources 50220.2.2 Diffuse Sources 50220.2.3 Direct Sources to the Lake 50520.3 History of Management of Lake Simcoe 50620.3.1 Implementation of Catchment Management Principles 50720.4 Management Achievements 51020.4.1 Reductions in Phosphorus Loadings 51020.4.2 Point Source Reductions – Sewage Treatment 51120.4.3 Diffuse Source Reductions 51220.4.4 Septic Systems 51220.4.5 Urban Run-off 51320.4.6 Fertilisers 51520.4.7 Livestock 51620.4.8 Soil Erosion 51620.4.9 Wetland Drainage (Polders) 51720.4.10 Improvements in Lake Water Quality 51820.4.11 Management Impacts on Fish Stocks 52020.5 Future Implications 52220.5.1 Land Use and Population Change 52220.5.2 Climate Change 52420.6 Conclusion 526References 52721 Management of Water Resources on the Han River, Korea 533Hwirin Kim21.1 Introduction 53321.2 Short Historical Synopsis 53521.2.1 Dams, Weirs, Reservoirs, and Related Institutions in the Han River Basin 53521.2.2 The Dam and Weir Conjunctive Operation Council 53821.3 Current Issues 53921.3.1 Flooding in 2006 53921.3.2 Drought in 2016–2018 54221.3.3 Dam Water Use for River Water Quality Improvement-2018 54321.4 Future Challenges 54622 Dispute Resolution in the Cauvery Basin, India 549Neha Khandekar and Veena Srinivasan22.1 Introduction 54922.1.1 Background 54922.1.2 The Cauvery Water Conflict 55222.2 History of the Dispute 55322.2.1 Colonial Times 55322.2.2 Post‐independence Origins of Inter‐State Dispute (1974–1990) 55522.2.3 Tribunal Process (1990–2007) 55522.2.4 Different States Have Different Positions About Principles 55622.2.4.1 Karnataka’s Position 55622.2.4.2 Tamil Nadu’s Position 55722.2.5 2007 Agreement 55822.2.5.1 Principles of Allocation 55822.2.5.2 Surface Water Allocation 55822.2.5.3 Groundwater Allocation 55822.2.5.4 Environmental Flow 56022.2.5.5 Release Schedule 56022.2.6 Post‐tribunal Conflicts (2007–2018) 56122.2.7 The 2018 Verdict 56122.3 Analysis of the Cauvery Dispute 56222.3.1 Problems with Scientific Basis of Tribunal Allocation 56322.3.1.1 Premise of Allocation Is Flawed 56322.3.1.2 No Guidance on Shortage Sharing in Drought Years 56422.3.1.3 No Clarity on Wastewater Ownership 56422.3.2 Data Gaps 56422.3.2.1 Sparse Data on Water Availability 56422.3.2.2 Inconsistent and Inadequate Data on Agricultural Water Use 56522.3.2.3 Data on ‘Green Water’ and Evapotranspiration Is Unavailable 56522.3.2.4 Data on Urban Water Use Is Fragmented 56622.3.2.5 Inadequate Public Information on Water Infrastructure Plans 56622.3.2.6 Missing Data on Water Infrastructure Operations 56622.3.2.7 Reservoir Sedimentation Is Not Accounted for 56622.3.2.8 Water Quality Data Are Inadequate 56722.4 Science–Policy Gaps 56722.4.1 Changing Nature of Demand and Supply 56822.5 Political Challenges 56922.5.1 Identity Politics 56922.5.2 Poor Public Communication 56922.6 Dispute Resolution Approaches 56922.6.1 Cauvery Management Board 57022.6.2 Direct Dialogue 57122.7 Summary and Way Forward 571Acknowledgements 573References 57323 The Future for Catchment Management 579Alan Jenkins and Robert C. Ferrier23.1 Climate Change 57923.2 Biodiversity 58023.3 Land Use 58123.4 Coasts 58223.5 Ecosystem Goods and Services 58223.6 People and Management 58323.7 Science 58423.8 Challenges for the Next Decade 585References 585Index 589