Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, Photovoltaics and Wind

The late JOHN A. DUFFIE was Professor Emeritus of Chemical-Engineering and past Director of the Solar Energy Laboratory at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. WILLIAM A. BECKMAN is the Ouweneel-Bascom Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering and Director Emeritus of the Solar Energy Laboratory at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. NATHAN BLAIR manages the Distributed Systems and Storage Group in the Strategic Energy Analysis center at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

• Preface xiPreface to the Fourth Edition xiiiPreface to the Third Edition xvPreface to the Second Edition xviiPreface to the First Edition xixPart I Fundamentals 11 Solar Radiation 31.1 The Sun 31.2 The Solar Constant 51.3 Spectral Distribution of Extraterrestrial Radiation 61.4 Variation of Extraterrestrial Radiation 81.5 Definitions 91.6 Direction of Beam Radiation 121.7 Angles for Tracking Surfaces 201.8 Ratio of Beam Radiation on Tilted Surface to That on Horizontal Surface 241.9 Shading 301.10 Extraterrestrial Radiation on a Horizontal Surface 371.11 Summary 41References 432 Available Solar Radiation 452.1 Definitions 452.2 Pyrheliometers and Pyrheliometric Scales 462.3 Pyranometers 502.4 Measurement of Duration of Sunshine 552.5 Solar Radiation Data 562.6 Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation 612.7 Estimation of Average Solar Radiation 662.8 Estimation of Clear-Sky Radiation 702.9 Distribution of Clear and Cloudy Days and Hours 732.10 Beam and Diffuse Components of Hourly Radiation 762.11 Beam and Diffuse Components of Daily Radiation 792.12 Beam and Diffuse Components of Monthly Radiation 812.13 Estimation of Hourly Radiation from Daily Data 832.14 Radiation on Sloped Surfaces 862.15 Radiation on Sloped Surfaces: Isotropic Sky 912.16 Radiation on Sloped Surfaces: Anisotropic Sky 922.17 Radiation Augmentation 982.18 Beam Radiation on Moving Surfaces 1032.19 Average Radiation on Sloped Surfaces: Isotropic Sky 1042.20 Average Radiation on Sloped Surfaces: KT Method 1082.21 Effects of Receiving Surface Orientation on HT 1142.22 Utilizability 1162.23 Generalized Utilizability 1202.24 Daily Utilizability 1282.25 Summary 134References 1363 Selected Heat Transfer Topics 1413.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 1413.2 Photon Radiation 1423.3 The Blackbody: Perfect Absorber and Emitter 1423.4 Planck’s Law and Wien’s Displacement Law 1433.5 Stefan-Boltzmann Equation 1443.6 Radiation Tables 1453.7 Radiation Intensity and Flux 1473.8 Infrared Radiation Exchange Between Gray Surfaces 1493.9 Sky Radiation 1503.10 Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient 1513.11 Natural Convection Between Flat Parallel Plates and Between Concentric Cylinders 1523.12 Convection Suppression 1573.13 Vee-Corrugated Enclosures 1613.14 Heat Transfer Relations for Internal Flow 1623.15 Wind Convection Coefficients 1663.16 Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop in Packed Beds and Perforated Plates 1683.17 Effectiveness-NTU Calculations for Heat Exchangers 1713.18 Summary 173References 1744 Radiation Characteristics of Opaque Materials 1774.1 Absorptance and Emittance 1784.2 Kirchhoff’s Law 1804.3 Reflectance of Surfaces 1814.4 Relationships Among Absorptance, Emittance, and Reflectance 1854.5 Broadband Emittance and Absorptance 1864.6 Calculation of Emittance and Absorptance 1874.7 Measurement of Surface Radiation Properties 1904.8 Selective Surfaces 1924.9 Mechanisms of Selectivity 1964.10 Optimum Properties 1994.11 Angular Dependence of Solar Absorptance 2004.12 Absorptance of Cavity Receivers 2014.13 Specularly Reflecting Surfaces 2024.14 Advanced Radiation Heat Transfer Analysis 2034.15 Summary 205References 2065 Radiation Transmission through Glazing: Absorbed Radiation 2095.1 Reflection of Radiation 2095.2 Absorption by Glazing 2135.3 Optical Properties of Cover Systems 2135.4 Transmittance for Diffuse Radiation 2185.5 Transmittance-Absorptance Product 2205.6 Angular Dependence of (𝜏𝛼) 2215.7 Spectral Dependence of Transmittance 2225.8 Effects of Surface Layers on Transmittance 2255.9 Absorbed Solar Radiation 2265.10 Monthly Average Absorbed Radiation 2305.11 Absorptance of Rooms 2365.12 Absorptance of Photovoltaic Cells 2385.13 Summary 241References 2436 Flat-Plate Collectors 2446.1 Description of Flat-Plate Collectors 2446.2 Basic Flat-Plate Energy Balance Equation 2456.3 Temperature Distributions in Flat-Plate Collectors 2466.4 Collector Overall Heat Loss Coefficient 2486.5 Temperature Distribution Between Tubes and the Collector Efficiency Factor 2626.6 Temperature Distribution in Flow Direction 2696.7 Collector Heat Removal Factor and Flow Factor 2706.8 Critical Radiation Level 2746.9 Mean Fluid and Plate Temperatures 2756.10 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product 2766.11 Effects of Dust and Shading 2796.12 Heat Capacity Effects in Flat-Plate Collectors 2806.13 Liquid Heater Plate Geometries 2836.14 Air Heaters 2886.15 Measurements of Collector Performance 2956.16 Collector Characterizations 2966.17 Collector Tests: Efficiency, Incidence Angle Modifier, and Time Constant 2976.18 Test Data 3076.19 Thermal Test Data Conversion 3106.20 Flow Rate Corrections to FR (𝜏𝛼)n and FRUL 3136.21 Flow Distribution in Collectors 3166.22 In Situ Collector Performance 3176.23 Practical Considerations for Flat-Plate Collectors 3186.24 Putting It All Together 3216.25 Summary 326References 3277 Concentrating Collectors 3317.1 Collector Configurations 3327.2 Concentration Ratio 3347.3 Thermal Performance of Concentrating Collectors 3367.4 Optical Performance of Concentrating Collectors 3437.5 Cylindrical Absorber Arrays 3447.6 Optical Characteristics of Nonimaging Concentrators 3467.7 Orientation and Absorbed Energy for CPC Collectors 3547.8 Performance of CPC Collectors 3587.9 Linear Imaging Concentrators: Geometry 3607.10 Images Formed by Perfect Linear Concentrators 3637.11 Images from Imperfect Linear Concentrators 3687.12 Ray-Trace Methods for Evaluating Concentrators 3707.13 Incidence Angle Modifiers and Energy Balances 3707.14 Paraboloidal Concentrators 3767.15 Central-Receiver Collectors 3777.16 Practical Considerations 3787.17 Summary 379References 3808 Energy Storage 3828.1 Process Loads and Solar Collector Outputs 3828.2 Energy Storage in Solar Thermal Systems 3848.3 Water Storage 3858.4 Stratification in Storage Tanks 3888.5 Packed-Bed Storage 3938.6 Storage Walls 4018.7 Seasonal Storage 4038.8 Phase Change Energy Storage 4058.9 Chemical Energy Storage 4108.10 Battery Storage 4118.11 Hydroelectric and Compressed Air Storage 4158.12 Summary 418References 4199 Solar Process Loads 4229.1 Examples of Time-Dependent Loads 4239.2 Hot-Water Loads 4249.3 Space Heating Loads, Degree-Days, and Balance Temperature 4259.4 Building Loss Coefficients 4289.5 Building Energy Storage Capacity 4309.6 Cooling Loads 4309.7 Swimming Pool Heating Loads 4319.8 Summary 433References 43410 System Thermal Calculations 43610.1 Component Models 43710.2 Collector Heat Exchanger Factor 43810.3 Duct and Pipe Loss Factors 44010.4 Controls 44310.5 Collector Arrays: Series Connections 44510.6 Performance of Partially Shaded Collectors 44710.7 Series Arrays with Sections Having Different Orientations 44910.8 Use of Modified Collector Equations 45110.9 System Models 45510.10 Solar Fraction and Solar Savings Fraction 45810.11 Summary 459References 46111 Solar Process Economics 46211.1 Costs of Solar Process Systems 46211.2 Design Variables 46511.3 Economic Figures of Merit 46711.4 Discounting and Inflation 46911.5 Present-Worth Factor 47111.6 Life-Cycle Savings Method 47411.7 Evaluation of Other Economic Indicators 47911.8 The P1, P2 Method 48211.9 Uncertainties in Economic Analyses 48711.10 Economic Analysis Using Solar Savings Fraction 49011.11 Summary 491References 491Part II Applications 49312 Solar Water Heating: Active and Passive 49512.1 Water Heating Systems 49512.2 Freezing, Boiling, and Scaling 49912.3 Auxiliary Energy 50212.4 Forced-Circulation Systems 50412.5 Low-Flow Pumped Systems 50512.6 Natural-Circulation Systems 50712.7 Integral Collector Storage Systems 51012.8 Retrofit Water Heaters 51212.9 Water Heating in Space Heating and Cooling Systems 51212.10 Testing and Rating of Solar Water Heaters 51312.11 Economics of Solar Water Heating 51412.12 Swimming Pool Heating 51712.13 Summary 518References 51913 Building Heating: Active 52113.1 Historical Notes 52213.2 Solar Heating Systems 52313.3 CSU House III Flat-Plate Liquid System 52813.4 CSU House II Air System 53113.5 Heating System Parametric Study 53313.6 Solar Energy–Heat Pump Systems 53713.7 Phase Change Storage Systems 54213.8 Seasonal Energy Storage Systems 54513.9 Solar and Off-Peak Electric Systems 54913.10 Solar System Overheating 55013.11 Solar Heating Economics 55113.12 Architectural Considerations 554References 55614 Building Heating: Passive and Hybrid Methods 55914.1 Concepts of Passive Heating 56014.2 Comfort Criteria and Heating Loads 56114.3 Movable Insulation and Controls 56114.4 Shading: Overhangs and Wingwalls 56214.5 Direct-Gain Systems 56614.6 Collector-Storage Walls and Roofs 57114.7 Sunspaces 57514.8 Active Collection–Passive Storage Hybrid Systems 57714.9 Other Hybrid Systems 57814.10 Passive Applications 57914.11 Heat Distribution in Passive Buildings 58414.12 Costs and Economics of Passive Heating 58514.13 Summary 587References 58815 Solar Cooling 59015.1 Solar Absorption Cooling 59115.2 Theory of Absorption Cooling 59315.3 Combined Solar Heating and Cooling 59915.4 Simulation Study of Solar Air Conditioning 60015.5 Operating Experience with Solar Cooling 60315.6 Applications of Solar Absorption Air Conditioning 60615.7 Solar Desiccant Cooling 60615.8 Ventilation and Recirculation Desiccant Cycles 60915.9 Solar-Mechanical Cooling 61115.10 Solar-Related Air Conditioning 61415.11 Passive Cooling 615References 61616 Solar Industrial Process Heat 61916.1 Integration with Industrial Processes 61916.2 Mechanical Design Considerations 62016.3 Economics of Industrial Process Heat 62116.4 Open-Circuit Air Heating Applications 62216.5 Recirculating Air System Applications 62616.6 Once-Through Industrial Water Heating 62816.7 Recirculating Industrial Water Heating 63016.8 Shallow-Pond Water Heaters 63216.9 Summary 634References 63417 Solar Thermal Power Systems 63617.1 Thermal Conversion Systems 63617.2 Gila Bend Pumping System 63717.3 Luz Systems 63917.4 Central-Receiver Systems 64317.5 Solar One and Solar Two Power Plants 64517.6 Summary 648References 64818 Solar Ponds: Evaporative Processes 65018.1 Salt-Gradient Solar Ponds 65018.2 Pond Theory 65218.3 Applications of Ponds 65418.4 Solar Distillation 65518.5 Evaporation 66118.6 Direct Solar Drying 66218.7 Summary 662References 663Part III Design Methods 66519 Simulations in Solar Process Design 66719.1 Simulation Programs 66819.2 Utility of Simulations 66819.3 Information from Simulations 66919.4 TRNSYS: Thermal Process Simulation Program 67119.5 Simulations and Experiments 67719.6 Meteorological Data 67819.7 Limitations of Simulations 681References 68120 Design of Active Systems: f-Chart 68320.1 Review of Design Methods 68320.2 The f-Chart Method 68420.3 The f-Chart for Liquid Systems 68820.4 The f-Chart for Air Systems 69420.5 Service Water Heating Systems 69820.6 The f-Chart Results 70020.7 Parallel Solar Energy-Heat Pump Systems 70120.8 Summary 705References 70521 Design of Active Systems by Utilizability Methods 70721.1 Hourly Utilizability 70821.2 Daily Utilizability 71121.3 The 𝜙, f-Chart Method 71421.4 Summary 724References 72522 Design of Passive and Hybrid Heating Systems 72622.1 Approaches to Passive Design 72622.2 Solar-Load Ratio Method 72722.3 Unutilizability Design Method: Direct Gain 73622.4 Unutilizability Design Method: Collector-Storage Walls 74222.5 Hybrid Systems: Active Collection with Passive Storage 75022.6 Other Hybrid Systems 75722.7 Summary 758References 75823 Design of Photovoltaic Systems 76023.1 Photovoltaic Converters 76123.2 PV Generator Characteristics and Models 76223.3 Cell Temperature 77323.4 Load Characteristics and Direct-Coupled Systems 77523.5 Controls and Maximum Power Point Trackers 77823.6 Applications 77923.7 Design Procedures 78023.8 High-Flux PV Generators 78623.9 Summary 786References 78724 Wind Energy 78924.1 Introduction 78924.2 Wind Resource 79324.3 One-Dimensional Wind Turbine Model 80124.4 Estimating Wind Turbine Average Power and Energy Production 80624.5 Summary 810References 810Appendixes 811A Problems 811B Nomenclature 870C International System of Units 875D Meteorological Data 877Index 885