Dr Euclid Seeram, PhD, MSc, BSc, FCAMRT, currently serves as honorary senior lecturer at the University of Sydney-Faculty of Health Sciences; adjunct associate professor at Monash University-Medicine, Nursing, and Health Sciences; adjunct professor at Charles Sturt University-Faculty of Science; and Adjunct Associate Professor-Faculty of Health, University of Canberra; in Australia.He has published more than 50 papers in professional radiologic technology journals and has had 20 textbooks published on computed tomography, computers in radiology, radiographic instrumentation, digital radiography, and radiation protection. He is a founding member of the Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences and is now on editorial boards for Radiography; Biomedical Imaging and Intervention Journal; Open Journal of Radiology; Journal of Allied Health; Journal of Social Science & Allied Health Professions. Euclid also serves on the international advisory panel for the Journal of Medical Radiation Sciences.

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• Foreword xiiiPreface xivAcknowledgments xviiSection 1: IntroductionChapter 1 Radiographic sciences and technology: an overview 3RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGING SYSTEMS: MAJOR MODALITIES AND COMPONENTS 4RADIOGRAPHIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY 5Essential physics of diagnostic imaging 5Digital radiographic imaging modalities 5Radiographic exposure technique 6Image quality considerations 6Computed tomography – physics and instrumentation 7Quality control 8Imaging informatics at a glance 9RADIATION PROTECTION AND DOSE OPTIMIZATION 10Radiobiology 10Radiation protection in diagnostic radiography 10Technical factors affecting dose in radiographic imaging 11Radiation protection regulations 12Optimization of radiation protection 13Bibliography 13Chapter 2 Digital radiographic imaging systems: major components 14FILM‐SCREEN RADIOGRAPHY: SHORT REVIEW OF PRINCIPLES 14DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY MODALITIES: MAJOR SYSTEM COMPONENTS 18Computed radiography 19Flat‐panel digital radiography 19Digital fluoroscopy 19Digital mammography 21Computed tomography 21IMAGE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 22Picture archiving and communication system 23References 23Section 2: Basic Radiographic Sciences and TechnologyChapter 3 Basic physics of diagnostic radiography 27STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 28Nucleus 28Electrons, quantum levels, binding energy, electron volts 28ENERGY DISSIPATION IN MATTER 29Excitation 29Ionization 30TYPES OF RADIATION 30Electromagnetic radiation 31Particulate radiation 32X‐RAY GENERATION 32X‐RAY PRODUCTION 32Properties of x‐rays 33Origin of x‐rays 33Characteristic radiation 33Bremsstrahlung radiation 34X‐RAY EMISSION 34X‐RAY BEAM QUANTITY AND QUALITY 35Factors affecting x‐ray beam quantity and quality 36INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER 39Mechanisms of interaction in diagnostic x-ray imaging 40RADIATION ATTENUATION 43Linear attenuation coefficient 43Mass attenuation coefficient 43Half value layer 44RADIATION QUANTITIES AND UNITS 45Bibliography 45Chapter 4 X‐ray tubes and generators 46PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF THE X‐RAY MACHINE 47COMPONENTS OF THE X‐RAY CIRCUIT 48The power supply to the x‐ray circuit 49The low‐voltage section control console) 49The high‐voltage section 50TYPES OF X‐RAY GENERATORS 51Three‐phase generators 52High‐frequency generators 52Power ratings 53THE X‐RAY TUBE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 53Major components 54SPECIAL X‐RAY TUBES: BASIC DESIGN FEATURES 57Double‐bearing axle 58HEAT CAPACITY AND HEAT DISSIPATION CONSIDERATIONS 58X‐RAY BEAM FILTRATION AND COLLIMATION 58Inherent and added filtration 59Effects of filtration on x‐ray tube output intensity 59Half‐value layer 60Collimation 60References 60Chapter 5 Digital image processing at a glance 61DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 61Definition 62Image formation and representation 62Processing operations 63CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL IMAGES 63GRAY SCALE PROCESSING 64Windowing 67CONCLUSION 69References 69Chapter 6 Digital radiographic imaging modalities: principles and technology 70COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY 71Essential steps 71Basic physical principles 71Response of the IP to radiation exposure 73The standardized exposure indicator 73FLAT‐PANEL DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY 76What is FPDR? 76Types of FPDR systems 76Basic physical principles of indirect and direct flat‐panel detectors 76The fill factor of the pixel in the flat‐panel detector 78Exposure indicator 79Image quality descriptors for DR systems 79Continuous quality improvement for DR systems 79DIGITAL FLUOROSCOPY 80Digital fluoroscopy modes 80II‐Based digital fluoroscopy characteristics 80Flat‐panel digital fluoroscopy characteristics 83DIGITAL MAMMOGRAPHY 85Screen‐film mammography – basic principles 85Full‐field digital mammography –major elements 86DIGITAL TOMOSYNTHESIS AT A GLANCE 87Imaging system characteristics 87Synthesized 2D digital mammography 89References 90Chapter 7 Image quality and dose 91THE PROCESS OF CREATING AN IMAGE 92IMAGE QUALITY METRICS 93Contrast 93Contrast resolution 94Spatial resolution 96Noise 98Contrast‐to‐noise ratio 101Signal‐to‐noise ratio 101ARTIFACTS 102IMAGE QUALITY AND DOSE 103Digital detector response to the dose 103Detective quantum efficiency 104References 105Section 3: Computed Tomography: Basic Physics and TechnologyChapter 8 The essential technical aspects of computed tomography 109BASIC PHYSICS 110Radiation attenuation 111TECHNOLOGY 116Data acquisition: principles and components 117Image reconstruction 118Image display, storage, and communication 120MULTISLICE CT: PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY 121Slip‐ring technology 122X‐ray tube technology 122Interpolation algorithms 123MSCT detector technology 124Selectable scan parameters 125Isotropic CT imaging 127MSCT image processing 127IMAGE POSTPROCESSING 128Windowing 1283‐D image display techniques 129IMAGE QUALITY 130Spatial resolution 130Contrast resolution 131Noise 131RADIATION PROTECTION 131CT dosimetry 132Factors affecting patient dose 132Optimizing radiation protection 133CONCLUSION 134References 134Section 4: Continuous Quality ImprovementChapter 9 Fundamentals of quality control 139INTRODUCTION 139DEFINITIONS 140ESSENTIAL STEPS OF QC 141QC RESPONSIBILITIES 142STEPS IN CONDUCTING A QC TEST 142THE TOLERANCE LIMIT OR ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA 143PARAMETERS FOR QC MONITORING 145Major parameters of imaging systems 145QC TESTING FREQUENCY 145TOOLS FOR QC TESTING 146THE FORMAT OF A QC TEST 146PERFORMANCE CRITERIA/TOLERANCE LIMITS FOR COMMON QC TESTS 147Radiography 147Fluoroscopy 150REPEAT IMAGE ANALYSIS 151Corrective action/Reasons for rejection 151COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY QC TESTS FOR TECHNOLOGISTS 152The ACR CT accreditation phantom 152The ACR action limits for tests done by technologists 153Artifact evaluation 155References 156Section 5: PACS and Imaging InformaticsChapter 10 PACS and imaging informatics at a glance 159INTRODUCTION 159PACS CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES 160Definition 160Core technical components 160IMAGING INFORMATICS 163Enterprise imaging 164Cloud computing 164Big data 164Artificial intelligence 164Machine learning 165Deep learning 165APPLICATIONS OF AI IN MEDICAL IMAGING 165AI in CT image reconstruction 166Ethics of AI in radiology 166References 166Section 6: Radiation ProtectionChapter 11 Basic concepts of radiobiology 171WHAT IS RADIOBIOLOGY? 172BASIC CONCEPTS OF RADIOBIOLOGY 173Generalizations about radiation effects on living organisms 173Relevant physical processes 174Radiosensitivity 175Dose–response models 176Radiation interactions in tissue: target theory, direct and indirect action 177DNA and chromosome damage 178EFFECTS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE TO THE TOTAL BODY 179Hematopoietic of bone marrow syndrome 180Gastrointestinal syndrome 180Central nervous system (CNS) syndrome 180DETERMINISTIC EFFECTS 180STOCHASTIC EFFECTS 181Tissue effects 181Life‐span shortening 181Radiation‐induced cancers 181Hereditary effects 182RADIATION EXPOSURE DURING PREGNANCY 183References 183Chapter 12 Technical dose factors in radiography, fluoroscopy, and CT 185DOSE FACTORS IN DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY 186The x‐ray generator 186Exposure technique factors 187X‐ray beam filtration 187Collimation and field size 188The SID and SSD 188Patient thickness and density 188Scattered radiation grid 189The sensitivity of the image receptor 190DOSE FACTORS IN FLUOROSCOPY 190Fluoroscopic exposure factors 190Fluoroscopic equipment factors 191CT RADIATION DOSE FACTORS AND DOSE OPTIMIZATION CONSIDERATIONS 194Dose distribution in the patient 194CT dose metrics 195Factors affecting the dose in CT 196Dose optimization overview 197References 198Chapter 13 Essential principles of radiation protection 200INTRODUCTION 201WHY RADIATION PROTECTION? 201Categories of data from human exposure 201Radiation dose–risk models 201Summary of biological effects 202Radiation protection organizations/reports 202OBJECTIVES OF RADIATION PROTECTION 203RADIATION PROTECTION PHILOSOPHY 203Justification 203Optimization 204Dose limits 204Personal actions 205Time 205Shielding 206Distance 206RADIATION QUANTITIES AND UNITS 206Sources of radiation exposure 207Quantities and units 207PERSONNEL DOSIMETRY 209OPTIMIZATION OF RADIATION PROTECTION 211Regulatory and guidance recommendations 211Diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) 212Gonadal shielding: past considerations 213X‐ray room shielding 214CURRENT STATE OF GONADAL SHIELDING 215References 215Index 217

Dr Euclid Seeram, PhD, MSc, BSc, FCAMRT, currently serves as honorary senior lecturer at the University of Sydney-Faculty of Health Sciences; adjunct associate professor at Monash University-Medicine, Nursing, and Health Sciences; adjunct professor at Charles Sturt University-Faculty of Science; and Adjunct Associate Professor-Faculty of Health, University of Canberra; in Australia.He has published more than 50 papers in professional radiologic technology journals and has had 20 textbooks published on computed tomography, computers in radiology, radiographic instrumentation, digital radiography, and radiation protection. He is a founding member of the Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences and is now on editorial boards for Radiography; Biomedical Imaging and Intervention Journal; Open Journal of Radiology; Journal of Allied Health; Journal of Social Science & Allied Health Professions. Euclid also serves on the international advisory panel for the Journal of Medical Radiation Sciences.

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• Foreword xiiiPreface xivAcknowledgments xviiSection 1: IntroductionChapter 1 Radiographic sciences and technology: an overview 3RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGING SYSTEMS: MAJOR MODALITIES AND COMPONENTS 4RADIOGRAPHIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY 5Essential physics of diagnostic imaging 5Digital radiographic imaging modalities 5Radiographic exposure technique 6Image quality considerations 6Computed tomography – physics and instrumentation 7Quality control 8Imaging informatics at a glance 9RADIATION PROTECTION AND DOSE OPTIMIZATION 10Radiobiology 10Radiation protection in diagnostic radiography 10Technical factors affecting dose in radiographic imaging 11Radiation protection regulations 12Optimization of radiation protection 13Bibliography 13Chapter 2 Digital radiographic imaging systems: major components 14FILM‐SCREEN RADIOGRAPHY: SHORT REVIEW OF PRINCIPLES 14DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY MODALITIES: MAJOR SYSTEM COMPONENTS 18Computed radiography 19Flat‐panel digital radiography 19Digital fluoroscopy 19Digital mammography 21Computed tomography 21IMAGE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 22Picture archiving and communication system 23References 23Section 2: Basic Radiographic Sciences and TechnologyChapter 3 Basic physics of diagnostic radiography 27STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 28Nucleus 28Electrons, quantum levels, binding energy, electron volts 28ENERGY DISSIPATION IN MATTER 29Excitation 29Ionization 30TYPES OF RADIATION 30Electromagnetic radiation 31Particulate radiation 32X‐RAY GENERATION 32X‐RAY PRODUCTION 32Properties of x‐rays 33Origin of x‐rays 33Characteristic radiation 33Bremsstrahlung radiation 34X‐RAY EMISSION 34X‐RAY BEAM QUANTITY AND QUALITY 35Factors affecting x‐ray beam quantity and quality 36INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER 39Mechanisms of interaction in diagnostic x-ray imaging 40RADIATION ATTENUATION 43Linear attenuation coefficient 43Mass attenuation coefficient 43Half value layer 44RADIATION QUANTITIES AND UNITS 45Bibliography 45Chapter 4 X‐ray tubes and generators 46PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF THE X‐RAY MACHINE 47COMPONENTS OF THE X‐RAY CIRCUIT 48The power supply to the x‐ray circuit 49The low‐voltage section control console) 49The high‐voltage section 50TYPES OF X‐RAY GENERATORS 51Three‐phase generators 52High‐frequency generators 52Power ratings 53THE X‐RAY TUBE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 53Major components 54SPECIAL X‐RAY TUBES: BASIC DESIGN FEATURES 57Double‐bearing axle 58HEAT CAPACITY AND HEAT DISSIPATION CONSIDERATIONS 58X‐RAY BEAM FILTRATION AND COLLIMATION 58Inherent and added filtration 59Effects of filtration on x‐ray tube output intensity 59Half‐value layer 60Collimation 60References 60Chapter 5 Digital image processing at a glance 61DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 61Definition 62Image formation and representation 62Processing operations 63CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL IMAGES 63GRAY SCALE PROCESSING 64Windowing 67CONCLUSION 69References 69Chapter 6 Digital radiographic imaging modalities: principles and technology 70COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY 71Essential steps 71Basic physical principles 71Response of the IP to radiation exposure 73The standardized exposure indicator 73FLAT‐PANEL DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY 76What is FPDR? 76Types of FPDR systems 76Basic physical principles of indirect and direct flat‐panel detectors 76The fill factor of the pixel in the flat‐panel detector 78Exposure indicator 79Image quality descriptors for DR systems 79Continuous quality improvement for DR systems 79DIGITAL FLUOROSCOPY 80Digital fluoroscopy modes 80II‐Based digital fluoroscopy characteristics 80Flat‐panel digital fluoroscopy characteristics 83DIGITAL MAMMOGRAPHY 85Screen‐film mammography – basic principles 85Full‐field digital mammography –major elements 86DIGITAL TOMOSYNTHESIS AT A GLANCE 87Imaging system characteristics 87Synthesized 2D digital mammography 89References 90Chapter 7 Image quality and dose 91THE PROCESS OF CREATING AN IMAGE 92IMAGE QUALITY METRICS 93Contrast 93Contrast resolution 94Spatial resolution 96Noise 98Contrast‐to‐noise ratio 101Signal‐to‐noise ratio 101ARTIFACTS 102IMAGE QUALITY AND DOSE 103Digital detector response to the dose 103Detective quantum efficiency 104References 105Section 3: Computed Tomography: Basic Physics and TechnologyChapter 8 The essential technical aspects of computed tomography 109BASIC PHYSICS 110Radiation attenuation 111TECHNOLOGY 116Data acquisition: principles and components 117Image reconstruction 118Image display, storage, and communication 120MULTISLICE CT: PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY 121Slip‐ring technology 122X‐ray tube technology 122Interpolation algorithms 123MSCT detector technology 124Selectable scan parameters 125Isotropic CT imaging 127MSCT image processing 127IMAGE POSTPROCESSING 128Windowing 1283‐D image display techniques 129IMAGE QUALITY 130Spatial resolution 130Contrast resolution 131Noise 131RADIATION PROTECTION 131CT dosimetry 132Factors affecting patient dose 132Optimizing radiation protection 133CONCLUSION 134References 134Section 4: Continuous Quality ImprovementChapter 9 Fundamentals of quality control 139INTRODUCTION 139DEFINITIONS 140ESSENTIAL STEPS OF QC 141QC RESPONSIBILITIES 142STEPS IN CONDUCTING A QC TEST 142THE TOLERANCE LIMIT OR ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA 143PARAMETERS FOR QC MONITORING 145Major parameters of imaging systems 145QC TESTING FREQUENCY 145TOOLS FOR QC TESTING 146THE FORMAT OF A QC TEST 146PERFORMANCE CRITERIA/TOLERANCE LIMITS FOR COMMON QC TESTS 147Radiography 147Fluoroscopy 150REPEAT IMAGE ANALYSIS 151Corrective action/Reasons for rejection 151COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY QC TESTS FOR TECHNOLOGISTS 152The ACR CT accreditation phantom 152The ACR action limits for tests done by technologists 153Artifact evaluation 155References 156Section 5: PACS and Imaging InformaticsChapter 10 PACS and imaging informatics at a glance 159INTRODUCTION 159PACS CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES 160Definition 160Core technical components 160IMAGING INFORMATICS 163Enterprise imaging 164Cloud computing 164Big data 164Artificial intelligence 164Machine learning 165Deep learning 165APPLICATIONS OF AI IN MEDICAL IMAGING 165AI in CT image reconstruction 166Ethics of AI in radiology 166References 166Section 6: Radiation ProtectionChapter 11 Basic concepts of radiobiology 171WHAT IS RADIOBIOLOGY? 172BASIC CONCEPTS OF RADIOBIOLOGY 173Generalizations about radiation effects on living organisms 173Relevant physical processes 174Radiosensitivity 175Dose–response models 176Radiation interactions in tissue: target theory, direct and indirect action 177DNA and chromosome damage 178EFFECTS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE TO THE TOTAL BODY 179Hematopoietic of bone marrow syndrome 180Gastrointestinal syndrome 180Central nervous system (CNS) syndrome 180DETERMINISTIC EFFECTS 180STOCHASTIC EFFECTS 181Tissue effects 181Life‐span shortening 181Radiation‐induced cancers 181Hereditary effects 182RADIATION EXPOSURE DURING PREGNANCY 183References 183Chapter 12 Technical dose factors in radiography, fluoroscopy, and CT 185DOSE FACTORS IN DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY 186The x‐ray generator 186Exposure technique factors 187X‐ray beam filtration 187Collimation and field size 188The SID and SSD 188Patient thickness and density 188Scattered radiation grid 189The sensitivity of the image receptor 190DOSE FACTORS IN FLUOROSCOPY 190Fluoroscopic exposure factors 190Fluoroscopic equipment factors 191CT RADIATION DOSE FACTORS AND DOSE OPTIMIZATION CONSIDERATIONS 194Dose distribution in the patient 194CT dose metrics 195Factors affecting the dose in CT 196Dose optimization overview 197References 198Chapter 13 Essential principles of radiation protection 200INTRODUCTION 201WHY RADIATION PROTECTION? 201Categories of data from human exposure 201Radiation dose–risk models 201Summary of biological effects 202Radiation protection organizations/reports 202OBJECTIVES OF RADIATION PROTECTION 203RADIATION PROTECTION PHILOSOPHY 203Justification 203Optimization 204Dose limits 204Personal actions 205Time 205Shielding 206Distance 206RADIATION QUANTITIES AND UNITS 206Sources of radiation exposure 207Quantities and units 207PERSONNEL DOSIMETRY 209OPTIMIZATION OF RADIATION PROTECTION 211Regulatory and guidance recommendations 211Diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) 212Gonadal shielding: past considerations 213X‐ray room shielding 214CURRENT STATE OF GONADAL SHIELDING 215References 215Index 217

Dr Euclid Seeram, PhD, MSc, BSc, FCAMRT, currently serves as honorary senior lecturer at the University of Sydney-Faculty of Health Sciences; adjunct associate professor at Monash University-Medicine, Nursing, and Health Sciences; adjunct professor at Charles Sturt University-Faculty of Science; and Adjunct Associate Professor-Faculty of Health, University of Canberra; in Australia.He has published more than 50 papers in professional radiologic technology journals and has had 20 textbooks published on computed tomography, computers in radiology, radiographic instrumentation, digital radiography, and radiation protection. He is a founding member of the Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences and is now on editorial boards for Radiography; Biomedical Imaging and Intervention Journal; Open Journal of Radiology; Journal of Allied Health; Journal of Social Science & Allied Health Professions. Euclid also serves on the international advisory panel for the Journal of Medical Radiation Sciences.

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• Foreword xiiiPreface xivAcknowledgments xviiSection 1: IntroductionChapter 1 Radiographic sciences and technology: an overview 3RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGING SYSTEMS: MAJOR MODALITIES AND COMPONENTS 4RADIOGRAPHIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY 5Essential physics of diagnostic imaging 5Digital radiographic imaging modalities 5Radiographic exposure technique 6Image quality considerations 6Computed tomography – physics and instrumentation 7Quality control 8Imaging informatics at a glance 9RADIATION PROTECTION AND DOSE OPTIMIZATION 10Radiobiology 10Radiation protection in diagnostic radiography 10Technical factors affecting dose in radiographic imaging 11Radiation protection regulations 12Optimization of radiation protection 13Bibliography 13Chapter 2 Digital radiographic imaging systems: major components 14FILM‐SCREEN RADIOGRAPHY: SHORT REVIEW OF PRINCIPLES 14DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY MODALITIES: MAJOR SYSTEM COMPONENTS 18Computed radiography 19Flat‐panel digital radiography 19Digital fluoroscopy 19Digital mammography 21Computed tomography 21IMAGE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 22Picture archiving and communication system 23References 23Section 2: Basic Radiographic Sciences and TechnologyChapter 3 Basic physics of diagnostic radiography 27STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 28Nucleus 28Electrons, quantum levels, binding energy, electron volts 28ENERGY DISSIPATION IN MATTER 29Excitation 29Ionization 30TYPES OF RADIATION 30Electromagnetic radiation 31Particulate radiation 32X‐RAY GENERATION 32X‐RAY PRODUCTION 32Properties of x‐rays 33Origin of x‐rays 33Characteristic radiation 33Bremsstrahlung radiation 34X‐RAY EMISSION 34X‐RAY BEAM QUANTITY AND QUALITY 35Factors affecting x‐ray beam quantity and quality 36INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER 39Mechanisms of interaction in diagnostic x-ray imaging 40RADIATION ATTENUATION 43Linear attenuation coefficient 43Mass attenuation coefficient 43Half value layer 44RADIATION QUANTITIES AND UNITS 45Bibliography 45Chapter 4 X‐ray tubes and generators 46PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF THE X‐RAY MACHINE 47COMPONENTS OF THE X‐RAY CIRCUIT 48The power supply to the x‐ray circuit 49The low‐voltage section control console) 49The high‐voltage section 50TYPES OF X‐RAY GENERATORS 51Three‐phase generators 52High‐frequency generators 52Power ratings 53THE X‐RAY TUBE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 53Major components 54SPECIAL X‐RAY TUBES: BASIC DESIGN FEATURES 57Double‐bearing axle 58HEAT CAPACITY AND HEAT DISSIPATION CONSIDERATIONS 58X‐RAY BEAM FILTRATION AND COLLIMATION 58Inherent and added filtration 59Effects of filtration on x‐ray tube output intensity 59Half‐value layer 60Collimation 60References 60Chapter 5 Digital image processing at a glance 61DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 61Definition 62Image formation and representation 62Processing operations 63CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL IMAGES 63GRAY SCALE PROCESSING 64Windowing 67CONCLUSION 69References 69Chapter 6 Digital radiographic imaging modalities: principles and technology 70COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY 71Essential steps 71Basic physical principles 71Response of the IP to radiation exposure 73The standardized exposure indicator 73FLAT‐PANEL DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY 76What is FPDR? 76Types of FPDR systems 76Basic physical principles of indirect and direct flat‐panel detectors 76The fill factor of the pixel in the flat‐panel detector 78Exposure indicator 79Image quality descriptors for DR systems 79Continuous quality improvement for DR systems 79DIGITAL FLUOROSCOPY 80Digital fluoroscopy modes 80II‐Based digital fluoroscopy characteristics 80Flat‐panel digital fluoroscopy characteristics 83DIGITAL MAMMOGRAPHY 85Screen‐film mammography – basic principles 85Full‐field digital mammography –major elements 86DIGITAL TOMOSYNTHESIS AT A GLANCE 87Imaging system characteristics 87Synthesized 2D digital mammography 89References 90Chapter 7 Image quality and dose 91THE PROCESS OF CREATING AN IMAGE 92IMAGE QUALITY METRICS 93Contrast 93Contrast resolution 94Spatial resolution 96Noise 98Contrast‐to‐noise ratio 101Signal‐to‐noise ratio 101ARTIFACTS 102IMAGE QUALITY AND DOSE 103Digital detector response to the dose 103Detective quantum efficiency 104References 105Section 3: Computed Tomography: Basic Physics and TechnologyChapter 8 The essential technical aspects of computed tomography 109BASIC PHYSICS 110Radiation attenuation 111TECHNOLOGY 116Data acquisition: principles and components 117Image reconstruction 118Image display, storage, and communication 120MULTISLICE CT: PRINCIPLES AND TECHNOLOGY 121Slip‐ring technology 122X‐ray tube technology 122Interpolation algorithms 123MSCT detector technology 124Selectable scan parameters 125Isotropic CT imaging 127MSCT image processing 127IMAGE POSTPROCESSING 128Windowing 1283‐D image display techniques 129IMAGE QUALITY 130Spatial resolution 130Contrast resolution 131Noise 131RADIATION PROTECTION 131CT dosimetry 132Factors affecting patient dose 132Optimizing radiation protection 133CONCLUSION 134References 134Section 4: Continuous Quality ImprovementChapter 9 Fundamentals of quality control 139INTRODUCTION 139DEFINITIONS 140ESSENTIAL STEPS OF QC 141QC RESPONSIBILITIES 142STEPS IN CONDUCTING A QC TEST 142THE TOLERANCE LIMIT OR ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA 143PARAMETERS FOR QC MONITORING 145Major parameters of imaging systems 145QC TESTING FREQUENCY 145TOOLS FOR QC TESTING 146THE FORMAT OF A QC TEST 146PERFORMANCE CRITERIA/TOLERANCE LIMITS FOR COMMON QC TESTS 147Radiography 147Fluoroscopy 150REPEAT IMAGE ANALYSIS 151Corrective action/Reasons for rejection 151COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY QC TESTS FOR TECHNOLOGISTS 152The ACR CT accreditation phantom 152The ACR action limits for tests done by technologists 153Artifact evaluation 155References 156Section 5: PACS and Imaging InformaticsChapter 10 PACS and imaging informatics at a glance 159INTRODUCTION 159PACS CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES 160Definition 160Core technical components 160IMAGING INFORMATICS 163Enterprise imaging 164Cloud computing 164Big data 164Artificial intelligence 164Machine learning 165Deep learning 165APPLICATIONS OF AI IN MEDICAL IMAGING 165AI in CT image reconstruction 166Ethics of AI in radiology 166References 166Section 6: Radiation ProtectionChapter 11 Basic concepts of radiobiology 171WHAT IS RADIOBIOLOGY? 172BASIC CONCEPTS OF RADIOBIOLOGY 173Generalizations about radiation effects on living organisms 173Relevant physical processes 174Radiosensitivity 175Dose–response models 176Radiation interactions in tissue: target theory, direct and indirect action 177DNA and chromosome damage 178EFFECTS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE TO THE TOTAL BODY 179Hematopoietic of bone marrow syndrome 180Gastrointestinal syndrome 180Central nervous system (CNS) syndrome 180DETERMINISTIC EFFECTS 180STOCHASTIC EFFECTS 181Tissue effects 181Life‐span shortening 181Radiation‐induced cancers 181Hereditary effects 182RADIATION EXPOSURE DURING PREGNANCY 183References 183Chapter 12 Technical dose factors in radiography, fluoroscopy, and CT 185DOSE FACTORS IN DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY 186The x‐ray generator 186Exposure technique factors 187X‐ray beam filtration 187Collimation and field size 188The SID and SSD 188Patient thickness and density 188Scattered radiation grid 189The sensitivity of the image receptor 190DOSE FACTORS IN FLUOROSCOPY 190Fluoroscopic exposure factors 190Fluoroscopic equipment factors 191CT RADIATION DOSE FACTORS AND DOSE OPTIMIZATION CONSIDERATIONS 194Dose distribution in the patient 194CT dose metrics 195Factors affecting the dose in CT 196Dose optimization overview 197References 198Chapter 13 Essential principles of radiation protection 200INTRODUCTION 201WHY RADIATION PROTECTION? 201Categories of data from human exposure 201Radiation dose–risk models 201Summary of biological effects 202Radiation protection organizations/reports 202OBJECTIVES OF RADIATION PROTECTION 203RADIATION PROTECTION PHILOSOPHY 203Justification 203Optimization 204Dose limits 204Personal actions 205Time 205Shielding 206Distance 206RADIATION QUANTITIES AND UNITS 206Sources of radiation exposure 207Quantities and units 207PERSONNEL DOSIMETRY 209OPTIMIZATION OF RADIATION PROTECTION 211Regulatory and guidance recommendations 211Diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) 212Gonadal shielding: past considerations 213X‐ray room shielding 214CURRENT STATE OF GONADAL SHIELDING 215References 215Index 217