Recovery of Byproducts from Acid Mine Drainage Treatment

Prof. Elvis Fosso-Kankeu has a doctorate degree from the University of Johannesburg in South Africa. He is currently a Full Professor in the School of Chemical and Mineral Engineering at the North-West University in South Africa. His research focuses on the prediction of pollutants dispersion from industrial areas, and on the development of effective and sustainable methods for the removal of inorganic and organic pollutants from polluted water. He has published more than 200 papers including journal articles, books, book chapters and conference proceeding papers. Prof. Christian Wolkersdorfer is a mining hydrogeologist with 27 years of experience in mine water geochemistry, hydrodynamics, geothermal applications and tracer tests. In 2014, he was provided the South African Research Chair for Acid Mine Water Treatment at Tshwane University of Technology and he held the world's first Industrial Research Chair for Mine Water Remediation & Management at Cape Breton University, Nova Scotia, Canada. He is also a "Finnish Distinguished Professor for Mine Water Management" at Lappeenranta University of Technology in Mikkeli, Finland. Dr. Jo Burgess is an environmental scientist with 20 years' experience in the water, environment and wastewater sectors. She has held roles as technology specialist, research manager and researcher in South African and British organizations. She has proven experience in research and development of new technologies and their implementation at scale. Her work at the academic / industrial interface has been recognized through international awards, and she has published over 100 books and articles.

• Preface xiiiPart 1: Prediction and Prevention of AMD Formation 11 Management of Metalliferous Solid Waste and its Potential to Contaminate Groundwater: A Case Study of O’Kiep, Namaqualand South Africa 3Innocentia G. Erdogan, Elvis Fosso-Kankeu, Seteno K.O. Ntwampe, Frans B. Waanders and Nils HothList of Abbreviations 41.1 Introduction 41.2 CMMs: Overview and Challenges 51.3 Metalliferous Solid Waste 61.3.1 Stockpiled Overburden Materials 61.3.2 Stockpiled Metalliferous Waste 71.3.3 Metalliferous Tailings 81.4 Environmental and Social Impact of CMMs and MSW 101.5 Soil Contamination 121.6 Groundwater Contamination 121.7 Atmospheric Contamination 121.8 Metalliferous Solid Waste Management 131.9 Rehabilitation and Restoration Strategies 131.10 ARD Formation and Groundwater Contamination 141.11 Overview of Challenges Associated with CMMs 151.12 Conclusion 16References 162 Mine Water Treatment and the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Acid Mine Drainage Prediction 23Viswanath Ravi Kumar Vadapalli, Emmanuel Sakala, Gloria Dube and Henk CoetzeeList of Abbreviations 232.1 Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) 242.1.1 AMD Generation 242.1.2 Factors Controlling AMD Generation 252.2 Remediation of AMD 272.2.1 Introduction 272.2.2 Passive Treatment of AMD 272.2.3 Active Treatment of AMD 292.2.4 Challenges With Current AMD Treatment 322.2.5 Value Recovery From AMD Treatment 332.3 Prediction of AMD 342.3.1 Limitations of Predictive Tools 352.4 Application of Artificial Intelligence for AMD Quality Prediction 362.4.1 Introduction 362.4.2 Different AI Techniques Used to Predict AMD Quality 372.4.3 Limitations of AI Techniques in Prediction of AMD Quality 382.4.4 Case Study—Ermelo Coalfield, South Africa 392.5 Conclusions 40References 413 The Prediction of Acid Mine Drainage Potential Using Mineralogy 49Deshenthree Chetty, Olga Bazhko, Veruska Govender and Samuel Ramatsoma3.1 Introduction 493.2 Mineralogical Approach for Prediction of AMD Potential 513.2.1 AMD Chemistry for Maximum Acid Generation or Consumption Potential 513.2.2 Mineral Modal Abundance 543.2.3 Mineral Reactivity 543.2.4 Mineral Liberation 563.2.5 Calculation of the AMD Potential 573.3 Application of the AMD Predictive Protocol 583.3.1 Experimental Procedures 593.3.2 Results and Discussion 603.4 Conclusions and Further Work 67References 684 Oxidation Processes and Formation of Acid Mine Drainage from Gold Mine Tailings: A South African Perspective 73Bisrat Yibas4.1 Introduction 734.2 Weathering and Oxidation of the Witwatersrand Gold Tailings 744.3 Water Infiltration and Oxygen Diffusion vs Oxidation Processes 764.3.1 Hydrogeology of Tailings Storage Facilities 764.3.1.1 Introduction 764.3.1.2 Primary Hydraulic Characteristics 784.3.1.3 Geological Structures as Preferential Flow Paths 804.3.2 Oxygen Diffusion 824.4 Geochemical and Mineralogical Evolution 844.4.1 Tailings Geochemistry and Mineralogy 844.4.2 Pore Water Geochemistry 864.5 Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations 894.5.1 Discussion 894.5.1.1 Mapping of the Oxidation Zones in Tailings Dams 894.5.1.2 Hydrogeological Situation 904.5.1.3 Oxygen Diffusion With Depth 904.5.1.4 Mineralogical and Geochemical Evolution of Tailings 914.5.1.5 Evolution of Pore Water Chemistry 914.5.1.6 Oxidation Processes and Drainage Formation 914.5.2 Conclusions 924.5.3 Recommendations 93Acknowledgements 93References 94Part 2: AMD Treatment 975 Technologies that can be Used for the Treatment of Wastewater and Brine for the Recovery of Drinking Water and Saleable Products 99Tumelo Monty Mogashane, Johannes Philippus Maree, Munyaradzi Mujuru and Mabel Mamasegare Mphahlele-Makgwane5.1 Introduction 1005.1.1 Formation of Acid Mine Water 1005.1.2 Water Volumes 1005.1.3 Legislation 1015.1.4 Government Initiatives 1025.1.5 Required Criteria 1035.2 Neutralization Technologies 1035.2.1 Neutralization Using Lime 1035.2.1.1 Conventional Treatment With Lime 1035.2.1.2 High-Density Sludge Process 1045.2.2 Limestone Neutralization 1055.2.3 Limestone Handling and Dosing System 1065.2.4 Utilization of Alkali in Mine Water for Removal of Iron(II) 1075.2.5 Modeling 1075.2.6 Lime/Limestone Neutralization 1095.2.6.1 Description of the Process 1095.2.6.2 Removal of H2SO4, Fe3+, and Al3+ with Limestone 1105.2.6.3 Removal of H2SO4, Fe3+, Al3+, and Fe2+ with Limestone 1115.3 Chemical Desalination 1115.3.1 SAVMIN 1115.3.2 Barium Sulfate Treatment Process 1125.4 Membrane Processes 1155.4.1 Reverse Osmosis 1155.4.2 NF Technologies 1175.4.3 High Recovery Precipitating Reverse Osmosis (HiPRO®) Process 1175.4.4 Electrodialysis 1205.4.5 Vibration Shear Enhanced Process 1215.4.6 Multi-Effect Membrane Distillation 1225.4.7 Forward Osmosis Desalination 1225.4.8 Biomimetic Desalination—Aquaporin Proteins 1235.4.9 Carbon Nanotube Distillation 1235.5 Ion-Exchange Technologies 1245.5.1 Introduction 1245.5.2 Conventional Ion-Exchange 1255.5.3 The GYP-CIX 1255.5.4 KNeW 1255.6 Biological Processes 1265.6.1 Background 1265.6.2 Biological Sulfate Reduction 1275.6.3 Constructed Bioreactors 1285.6.4 Paques Technologies 1295.6.5 BioSURE Technology 1305.6.6 The VitaSOFT Process 1315.6.7 In Situ Reactor 1325.6.8 Constructed Aerobic Wetlands 1335.6.9 Permeable Reactive Barriers 1335.6.10 General Aspects and Various Passive Technologies 1335.7 Electrochemical Processes 1355.7.1 Electrocoagulation 1355.7.2 Nanoelectrochemical Process for the Treatment of AMD 1355.8 Freezing-Based Technologies 1365.8.1 Basics 1365.8.2 Eutectic Freeze Crystallization 1365.8.3 HybridICE™ Technology 1365.9 Sludge Processing 1375.9.1 Background 1375.9.2 Recovery of Saleable Products or Raw Materials 1385.10 Integrated Processes—ROC Process 1385.10.1 Background 1385.10.2 Process Description 1395.11 Feasibility Models 1405.11.1 Introduction 1405.11.2 Feasibility of Individual Stages 1425.11.2.1 Neutralization Technologies 1425.11.2.2 Desalination Technologies 1435.11.2.3 Brine Treatment 1495.11.2.4 Product Recovery 1495.11.3 Feasibility of Various Process Configurations 1495.12 Conclusions 150Acknowledgements 150References 151Part 3: Recovery of Values from AMD 1576 Recovery of Ochers from Acid Mine Drainage Treatment: A Geochemical Modeling and Experimental Approach 159Khathutshelo Netshiongolwe, Yongezile Mhlana, Alseno Mosai, Heidi Richards, Luke Chimuka, Ewa Cukrowska and Hlanganani Tutu6.1 Introduction 1596.2 Methodology 1626.2.1 Simulation Studies—Model Setup as an Experimental Design Approach 1626.2.2 Experimental Studies 1646.2.2.1 Experiment 1 1646.2.2.2 Using NaOH as a Neutralizing Agent 1656.2.2.3 Addition of Ferrocyanide to Mineral Salts Used to Simulate AMD (Experiment 2) 1656.2.2.4 Using MgCO3 as a Neutralizing Agent 1666.2.3 Characterization of Fe Oxides 1666.3 Results and Discussion 1666.3.1 Simulation Studies 1666.3.1.1 Individual Neutralizing Agents 1666.3.1.2 Combined Neutralizing Agents 1676.3.1.3 Equilibrating with CO2 1686.3.1.4 Equilibrating with O2 1686.3.1.5 Fixed pH 1696.3.1.6 Varying Temperature 1696.3.1.7 Varying Concentrations of Neutralizing Agents 1696.3.2 Characterization of HDS 1696.3.2.1 Aims and Dry Matter 1696.3.2.2 Physical Characterization of HDS 1706.3.2.3 Chemical Characterization of HDS 1706.3.2.4 Mineralogy and Chemical Composition of HDS 1706.3.3 Experimental Studies 1726.3.3.1 Procedure Description 1726.3.3.2 Formation of Precipitates 1726.3.3.3 Characterization of Fe Precipitates 1826.3.3.4 Application in Paintings and Artwork 1836.3.3.5 Water Chemistry 1836.4 Indicative Cost Analysis 1846.5 Conclusion 185Acknowledgements 185References 1857 Innovative Routes for Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) Valorization: Advocating for a Circular Economy 189Vhahangwele Masindi and Memory Tekere7.1 Introduction 1907.1.1 Problem Description 1907.1.2 Physico-Chemical-Microbiological Properties of AMD 1917.2 Health Effects Associated with Contaminants in AMD 1937.3 Abatement of AMD 1947.4 Techniques for AMD Treatment 1957.4.1 Overview 1957.4.2 Chemical Precipitation 1957.4.3 Adsorption 1977.4.4 Filtration 1987.4.4.1 Introduction to Membrane Technologies 1987.4.5 Phyto Remediation 2017.4.5.1 Theory of the MD Process 2017.4.6 Phytoremediation 2027.5 Valorization of AMD 2027.5.1 Aims of Valorization 2027.5.2 Reclamation of Drinking Water 2037.5.3 Recovery of Valuable Minerals 2037.5.4 Synthesis of Valuable Minerals 2047.6 Case Study 2047.7 Challenges Relating to Valorization 2087.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 208References 2098 Recovery of Critical Raw Materials from Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): The EIT-Funded MORECOVERY Project 219Carlos Ruiz Cánovas, Jose Miguel Nieto, Francisco Macías, Maria Dolores Basallote, Manuel Olías, Rafael Pérez-López and Carlos Ayora8.1 Introduction 2198.2 Recovery of CRMs from AMD 2228.3 Upscaling of Successful Technologies and Economic Suitability 2248.4 Coupling Environmental and Resources Policy: The EIT-Funded MORECOVERY Project 225Acknowledgements 231References 2319 Deriving Value from Acid Mine Drainage 235M. van Rooyen and P.J. van Staden9.1 Introduction 2359.2 AMD Formation 2379.3 AMD Treatment Options 2389.3.1 General Philosophy 2389.3.2 High-Density Sludge Neutralization of AMD 2399.3.3 Sulfate Removal Options 2409.3.3.1 Reverse Osmosis 2409.3.3.2 Ettringite Precipitation 2439.3.3.3 Barium Carbonate Addition 2459.3.3.4 Biological Sulfate Reduction 2469.4 Deriving Value from AMD 2479.4.1 Fit-for-Use Water 2479.4.1.1 The Cascade Model 2479.4.1.2 Water Suitable for Irrigation 2489.4.1.3 Water Suitable for Industrial Use 2499.4.1.4 Water Suitable for Environmental Discharge 2499.4.1.5 Water Suitable for Sanitation 2499.4.1.6 Potable Water 2499.4.1.7 Cooling Water 2499.4.1.8 Boiler Water 2509.4.2 By-Products from AMD Treatment Processes 2519.4.2.1 Overview 2519.4.2.2 Gypsum Containing Products 2519.4.2.3 High-Value Iron-Bearing Products 2529.4.2.4 Uranium and Base Metals 2539.4.2.5 Hydrogen 2559.5 Synopsis 2559.5.1 AMD Remediation 2559.5.2 Deriving Value From AMD 256References 25910 Rare Earth Elements—A Treasure Locked in AMD? 263Leon Krüger10.1 AMD—Annoyance or Resource 26310.2 Rare Earths—The Almost Forgotten Elements! 26410.3 Characteristics—What is with the f-Orbitals? 26510.4 Applications—Sweating the Unique Characteristics 27110.4.1 Introduction 27110.4.2 Rare Earths as Process Enablers 27110.4.2.1 Catalysis 27110.4.2.2 Physical Metallurgy 27610.4.2.3 Glass and Ceramic Industries 27710.4.2.4 Medicine and Health Care 28010.4.3 Rare Earths as Technology Building Blocks 28310.4.3.1 Permanent Magnets 28310.4.3.2 Energy Storage 28710.4.3.3 Phosphors 29310.4.3.4 Glass Additives 29510.4.3.5 Lasers 29810.5 Occurrence—From Magma to AMD 30310.6 REEs—From AMD to High Technology? 308Acknowledgements 308References 30911 Opportunities and Challenges of Re-Mining Mine Water for Resources 315Martin Mkandawire11.1 Introduction 31511.2 Mine Water and Drainages 31611.2.1 Mine Water in Context of This Chapter 31611.2.2 General Mine Water Chemistry 31711.2.3 Types of Mine Water Sources 31711.2.3.1 Overview 31711.2.3.2 Flooded Underground Mine Pool 31811.2.3.3 Flooded Opencast Lakes 31811.2.3.4 Leachates 31911.2.4 Drainages of Mine Water 32111.2.4.1 Acid Mine Drainage 32111.2.4.2 Alkali Mine Drainage 32211.3 Potential Extractable Resources 32311.3.1 Water Supply 32311.3.1.1 Opportunities 32311.3.1.2 Applicable Extraction Methods 32311.3.1.3 Challenges 32411.3.1.4 Counter Options 32411.3.2 Thermal Resource 32511.3.2.1 Opportunities 32511.3.2.2 Applicable Extraction Methods 32611.3.2.3 Challenges 32811.3.2.4 Counter Options 32811.3.3 Electricity Generation Prospects 33011.3.3.1 Opportunities 33011.3.3.2 Applicable Extraction Methods 33011.3.3.3 Challenges 33411.3.3.4 Counter Options 33511.3.4 Mineral Resource Extraction 33511.3.4.1 Opportunities 33511.3.4.2 Applicable Extraction Methods 33611.3.5 Re-Mining Mine Water Treatment Sludge 33611.3.5.1 Opportunities 33611.3.5.2 Applicable Extraction Methods 34011.3.5.3 Challenges 34111.3.5.4 Counter Options 34211.3.6 Mine Methane Gas Extraction 34211.3.6.1 Opportunities 34211.3.6.2 Applicable Extraction Methods 34311.3.6.3 Challenges 34611.3.6.4 Counter Options 34711.4 Conclusion 347References 347Index 351