Fiber Optic Sensors

Eric Udd is President of Columbia Gorge Research, a company he founded in 2005 to promote fiber optic sensor technology. His work in this area since 1977 has involved performance on over 100 projects, 54 patents and over 200 papers. Udd is a Fellow of SPIE, and OSA (Optica). William B. Spillman, Jr. PhD, is an independent R&D consultant and a senior scientist at Columbia Gorge Research. With Eric Udd and others, he helped found the field field of fiber optic sensing in the late 1970’s. He has 46 US patents, 182 publications and 5975 citations (Google Scholar).

• ABOUT THE EDITORS xvLIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xviiPREFACE xix1 THE EMERGENCE OF FIBER OPTIC SENSOR TECHNOLOGY 1Eric Udd and William B. Spillman, Jr.2 OPTICAL FIBERS FOR SENSORS 7Christopher Emslie2.1 Introduction 72.2 What is an Optical Fiber? 92.3 Conventional Silica-Based Fiber Fabrication 132.4 Types of SOF Used in Fiber Sensors 263 LIGHT SOURCES 57Eric Udd3.1 Introduction 573.2 Fundamental Properties of Light Sources 573.3 Coherence Length 633.4 Semiconductor Light Sources 643.5 Summary 774 OPTICAL DETECTORS 79William B. Spillman, Jr.4.1 Introduction 794.2 Theoretical Background 794.3 Semiconductor Photodiodes 834.4 Avalanche Photodiodes 884.5 Noise 884.6 Spectral Detection 954.7 Summary 985 OPTICAL MODULATORS FOR FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 99Leonard M. Johnson5.1 Introduction 995.2 Electrooptic Effect 995.3 Bulk Modulators 1025.4 Integrated Optical Modulators 1085.5 All-Fiber Optical Modulators 1226 INTENSITY-BASED AND FABRY-PEROT INTERFEROMETER SENSORS 125Gordon L. Mitchell6.1 Intensity Sensors 1256.2 Band-Edge Temperature Sensors 1276.3 Encoder-Based Position Sensors 1296.4 Multimode Fabry-Perot Sensors 1306.5 Single-Mode Fabry-Perot Sensors 1347 MULTIMODE POLARIZATION SENSORS 139William B. Spillman, Jr.7.1 Introduction 1397.2 Theoretical Background 1397.3 Sensors Based on the Photoelastic Effect 1607.4 Sensors Based on Retardation Plates 1667.5 Development Status of Sensors 1728 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER AND PASSIVE RING RESONATOR 175Eric Udd8.1 Introduction 1758.2 Brief Overview of Optical Rotation Sensing and the Sagnac Effect 1758.3 Ring Laser Gyros 1808.4 Passive Ring Resonator Gyros 1838.5 Fiber Optic Gyros 1878.6 Trade-Off Between the Ring Laser, Passive Ring Resonator, and Fiber Optic Interferometer as Rotation Sensors 1898.7 Environmental Sensing Using the Sagnac Interferometer 1929 APPLICATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER 201Eric Udd9.1 Introduction 2019.2 Fiber Optic Gyro Development 2019.3 Derivative Applications of the Sagnac Interferometer 2069.4 Markets and Conclusion 20810 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE MACH-ZEHNDER AND MICHELSON INTERFEROMETERS 213Anthony Dandridge10.1 Introduction 21310.2 Principle of Operation 21410.3 Fiber Interferometer Configurations 23510.4 Applications 24010.5 Summary 24611 FIBER OPTIC INTERFEROMETRIC SENSORS: FROM BASIC RESEARCH TO PRODUCTION 249Clay Kirkendall and Anthony Dandridge11.1 Introduction 24911.2 Signal Fading 25011.3 Hydrophone Transducer Development 25311.4 Digital Interferometric Processing 25511.5 The Path from Research to Production 25712 DISTRIBUTED AND MULTIPLEXED FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 263Alan D. Kersey12.1 Introduction 26312.2 Distributed Sensing 26412.3 Basic Principles of Sensor Multiplexing 27312.4 Interferometric Sensor Multiplexing 27713 New Technologies in Distributed Fiber Sensors and Their Applications 293Xiaoyi Bao and Yuan Wang13.1 Introduction 29313.2 Introduction of Optical Time Domain Reflectometry and Optical Frequency-Domain Reflectometry for Sensing 29413.3 Spontaneous Scattering in Optical Fiber 29513.4 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Rayleigh Scattering 30213.5 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Brillouin Scattering 31613.6 Raman Scattering-Based Distributed Sensors 33013.7 Challenges and Limitations in Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors 33313.8 Conclusion 33414 DISTRIBUTED TRANSVERSE FORCE/STRESS SENSING ENABLED BY DISTRIBUTED POLARIZATION ANALYSIS 343X. Steve Yao14.1 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Distributed Polarization Crosstalk Analysis in PM Fibers 34414.2 Transverse Force Sensing Enabled by Frequency Domain Distributed Mueller Matrix Polarimetery 35514.3 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization Scrambled OFDR 36814.4 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization OTDR 36915 FIBER OPTIC SMART STRUCTURES 375Eric Udd15.1 Introduction 37515.2 Fiber Optic Sensor Systems 37615.3 Applications of Fiber Optic Smart Structures and Skins 38515.4 Example of the Application of a Fiber Optic Sensor to Smart Structures 38815.5 Conclusions 39316 FIBER GRATING SENSORS 397Eric Udd and Ingrid Udd Scheel16.1 Introduction 39716.2 Fabrication of Fiber Grating Sensors 39816.3 Single-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 40116.4 Multi-Parameter Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 41016.5 Triaxial Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 41416.6 Applications of Multi-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 41916.7 Summary 44617 FEMTOSECOND LASER-INDUCED FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS FOR HARSH ENVIRONMENT SENSING 449Stephen Mihailov17.1 Introduction 44917.2 Femtosecond Laser-Induced Index Change Mechanisms 45117.3 FBG Inscription Techniques with Femtosecond Lasers 45417.4 Sensing Applications of FS-Laser-Induced FBGS 46217.5 Summary 47118 CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 479Daniele Inaudi18.1 Introduction: Fiber Optic Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring 47918.2 Adapting Sensors for Civil Engineering Applications 48118.3 Bridges 48218.4 Buildings 48618.5 Geotechnical Engineering Structures 48718.6 Tunnels 48918.7 Dams, Dykes, and Tailings 49118.8 Conclusions 49219 FIBER OPTIC SENSING IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY 495Neal G. Skinner, John L. Maida Jr., and Daniel Stark19.1 Introduction 49519.2 Life Cycle of a Well/field 49619.3 Environmental Conditions in the Oil Field and Risks to Optical Fiber 50019.4 Downhole Fiber Cables 50219.5 Drivers for Downhole Sensors 50419.6 Recent Trends and Challenges 50919.7 Conclusions 50920 FIBER OPTIC BIOSENSORS 513William B. Spillman Jr.20.1 Introduction 51320.2 Sensor Classes and Transducer Mechanisms 51520.3 Biomedical Needs for Fiber Optic Biosensors 51820.4 Historically Demonstrated Applications 52020.5 New Sensor Concepts 53020.6 Summary 54221 FIBER OPTIC MAGNETIC SENSORS 545Frank Bucholtz21.1 Introduction 54521.2 Faraday Effect Sensors 54621.3 Magnetostrictive Sensors 55421.4 Lorentz Force Sensors 56922 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 573John W. Berthold III22.1 Introduction 57322.2 Background 57422.3 Temperature Measurement 57522.4 Pressure Measurement 57922.5 Fluid-Level Measurement 58122.6 Flow Measurement 58222.7 Position Measurement 58422.8 Vibration Measurement 58422.9 Chemical Analysis 58522.10 Current-Voltage Measurement 58822.11 Important Issues for Industrial Application 58922.12 Summary 590References 590INDEX 593