Green Energy

Suman Lata Tripathi, PhD, is a professor at Lovely Professional with more than seventeen years of experience in academics. She has published more than 45 research papers in refereed journals and conferences. She has organized several workshops, summer internships, and expert lectures for students, and she has worked as a session chair, conference steering committee member, editorial board member, and reviewer for IEEE journals and conferences. She has published one edited book and currently has multiple volumes scheduled for publication, including volumes available from Wiley-Scrivener. Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban, PhD, is a faculty member with the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Esbjerg, Denmark. He has almost ten years of teaching, research and industrial experience and is an associate editor on a number of international scientific refereed journals. He has published more than 300 research papers and has won numerous awards for his research and teaching.

• Preface xix1 Fabrication and Manufacturing Process of Solar Cell: Part I 1S. Dwivedi1.1 Introduction 21.1.1 Introduction to Si-Based Fabrication Technology 21.1.2 Introduction to Si Wafer 41.1.3 Introduction to Diode Physics 51.1.3.1 Equilibrium Fermi Energy (EF) 101.2 Fabrication Technology of Diode 191.3 Energy Production by Equivalent Cell Circuitry 271.4 Conclusion 30References 312 Fabrication and Manufacturing Process of Solar Cell: Part II 39Prabhansu and Nayan Kumar2.1 Introduction 392.2 Silicon Solar Cell Technologies 412.2.1 Crystalline Structured Silicon (c-Si) 412.2.2 Silicon-Based Thin-Film PV Cell 432.3 Homojunction Silicon Solar Cells 442.3.1 Classic Structure and Manufacture Process 442.3.2 Plans for High Productivity 452.4 Solar Si-Heterojunction Cell 462.5 Si Thin-Film PV Cells 482.5.1 PV Cell Development Based on p-I-n and n-I-p 492.5.2 Light-Based Trapping Methodologies 492.5.3 Approach to Tandem 512.5.4 Current Trends 512.6 Perovskite Solar Cells 522.6.1 Introduction 522.6.2 Specific Properties with Perovskites-Based Metaldhalide for Photovoltaics 532.6.3 Crystallization of Perovskite 552.6.4 Current Trends 562.7 Future Possibility and Difficulties 562.8 Conclusions 57References 583 Fabrication and Manufacturing Process of Perovskite Solar Cell 67Nandhakumar Eswaramoorthy and Kamatchi R3.1 Introduction 673.2 Architectures of Perovskite Solar Cells 683.3 Working Principle of Perovskite Solar Cell 703.4 Components of Perovskite Solar Cell 733.4.1 Transparent Conducting Metal Oxide (TCO) Layer 733.4.2 Electron Transport Layer (ETL) 743.4.3 Perovskite Layer 743.4.4 Hole Transport Layer (HTL) 753.4.5 Electrodes 753.5 Fabrication of Perovskite Films 763.5.1 One-Step Method 773.5.2 Two-Step Method 773.5.3 Solid-State Method 783.5.4 Bifacial Stamping Method 783.5.5 Solvent-Solvent Extraction Method 783.5.6 Pulse Laser Deposition Method 783.5.7 Vapor Deposition Method 793.5.8 Solvent Engineering 793.5.9 Additive Engineering 793.6 Manufacturing Techniques of Perovskite Solar Cells 793.6.1 Solution-Based Manufacturing Technique 803.6.1.1 Spin Coating 803.6.1.2 Dip Coating 813.6.2 Roll-to-Roll (R2R) Process 823.6.2.1 Knife-Over-Roll Coating 823.6.2.2 Slot-Die Coating 833.6.2.3 Flexographic Printing 843.6.2.4 Gravure Printing 853.6.2.5 Screen Printing 853.6.2.6 Inkjet Printing 863.6.2.7 Spray Coating 873.6.2.8 Brush Painting 883.6.2.9 Doctor Blade Coating 883.7 Encapsulation 893.8 Conclusions 90References 904 Parameter Estimation of Solar Cells: A State-of-the-Art Review with Metaheuristic Approaches and Future Recommendations 103Shilpy Goyal, Parag Nijhawan and Souvik Ganguli4.1 Introduction 1044.2 Related Works 1064.3 Problem Formulation 1074.3.1 Single-Diode Model (SDM) 1134.3.2 Double-Diode Model (DDM) 1154.3.3 Three-Diode Model (TDM) 1174.4 Salient Simulations and Discussions for Future Work 1214.5 Conclusions 134References 1345 Power Electronics and Solar Panel: Solar Panel Design and Implementation 139Nayan Kumar, Tapas Kumar Saha and Jayati Dey5.1 Chapter Overview 1395.2 Challenges in Solar Power 1415.3 Solar PV Cell Design and Implementation 1415.3.1 Solar PV Cell Basics 1455.3.2 Single-Diode-Based PV Cells (SDPVCs) 1485.3.3 Determination of the Parameters 1515.3.4 Double-Diode-Based PV Cell (DDPVC) 1525.3.5 Solar PV System Configuration 1535.4 MPPT Scheme for PV Panels 1545.4.1 Operation and Modeling of MPPT Schemes for Solar PV Panels 1555.4.2 Comparisons of Existing Solar MPPT Schemes 1565.4.2.1 Perturbation and Observation (P&O)-MPPT Algorithms 1565.4.2.2 Incremental-Conductance MPPT Algorithm 1585.5 Way for Utilization of PV Schemes 1595.5.1 Stand-Alone (SA) Based PV System 1595.5.2 Grid-Integration–Based PV System 1615.6 Future Trends 1615.7 Conclusion 162References 1626 An Effective Li-Ion Battery State of Health Estimation Based on Event-Driven Processing 167Saeed Mian Qaisar and Maram Alguthami6.1 Introduction 1686.2 Background and Literature Review 1696.2.1 Rechargeable Batteries 1696.2.2 Applications of Li-Ion Batteries 1716.2.3 Battery Management Systems 1716.2.4 State of Health Estimation Methods 1736.2.4.1 Direct Assessment Approaches 1736.2.4.2 Adaptive Model–Based Approaches 1736.2.4.3 Data-Driven Approaches 1746.3 The Proposed Approach 1756.3.1 The Li-Ion Battery Model 1756.3.2 The Event-Driven Sensing 1766.3.3 The Event-Driven State of Health Estimation 1776.3.3.1 The Conventional Coulomb Counting Based SoH Estimation 1786.3.3.2 The Event-Driven Coulomb Counting Based SoH Estimation 1786.3.4 The Evaluation Measures 1796.3.4.1 The Compression Ratio 1796.3.4.2 The Computational Complexity 1796.3.4.3 The SoH Estimation Error 1816.4 Experimental Results and Discussion 1816.4.1 Experimental Results 1816.4.2 Discussion 1856.5 Conclusion 187Acknowledgement 187References 1887 Effective Power Quality Disturbances Identification Based on Event-Driven Processing and Machine Learning 191Saeed Mian Qaisar and Raheef Aljefri7.1 Introduction 1927.2 Background and Literature Review 1947.2.1 Types of PQ Disturbances 1957.2.1.1 Transient 1967.2.1.2 Voltage Fluctuation 1967.2.1.3 Long Duration Voltage Interruption 1967.2.1.4 Noise 1967.2.1.5 Flicker 1967.2.1.6 Waveform Distortion 1967.2.2 Reasons for Generation of the PQ Disturbances 1967.2.3 PQ Disturbances Monitoring Techniques 1977.2.4 Facilities Effected by Power Quality Disturbances 1987.2.5 Power Quality (PQ) Disturbances Model 1987.2.6 Extraction of Features 1997.2.7 Classification Techniques 2007.3 Proposed Solution 2017.3.1 Power Quality (PQ) Disturbances Model 2017.3.1.1 The Pure Signal 2027.3.1.2 The Sag 2037.3.1.3 The Interruption 2037.3.1.4 The Swell 2037.3.2 The Signal Reconstruction 2047.3.3 The Event-Driven Sensing 2067.3.4 The Event-Driven Segmentation 2077.3.5 Extraction of Features 2077.3.6 Classification Techniques 2087.3.6.1 k-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) 2087.3.6.2 Naïve Bayes 2097.3.7 Evaluation Measures 2097.4 Results 2107.5 Discussion 2137.6 Conclusion 215Acknowledgement 215References 2158 Sr2SnO4 Ruddlesden Popper Oxide: Future Material for Renewable Energy Applications 221Upendra Kumar and Shail Upadhya8.1 Introduction 2228.1.1 Needs of Renewable Energy 2228.1.2 Ruddlesden Popper Oxide Phase 2248.1.3 Application of Ruddlesden Popper Phase 2278.1.4 Motivation of Present Work 2298.2 Experimental Work 2308.2.1 Preparation of Materials 2308.2.2 Characterizations of Materials 2318.3 Experimental Results 2318.3.1 Thermogravimetric and Differential Scanning Calorimetry Analysis 2318.3.2 Characterization of Sr2-xBaxSnO4 2328.3.2.1 Phase Determination using XRD 2328.3.2.2 Optical Properties 2348.3.2.3 Dielectric Analysis of Samples 2368.3.3 Characterization of Sr2-xLaxSnO4 2398.3.3.1 Structural Analysis using XRD 2398.3.3.2 UV-Vis. Spectroscopy 2428.3.3.3 Electrical Analysis 2448.4 Conclusions 245Acknowledgement 246References 2469 A Universal Approach to Solar Photovoltaic Panel Modeling 251Chitra A., M. Manimozhi, Sanjeevikumar P, Nirupama Nambiar and Saransh Chhawchharia9.1 Introduction 2519.2 PV Panel Modeling: A Brief Overview 2529.3 Proposed Model 2549.4 Current Model 2599.5 Voltage Model 2609.6 Simulation Results 2609.7 Conclusion 265Acknowledgement 265References 26610 Stepped DC Link Converters for Solar Power Applications 271Dr. R. Uthirasamy, Dr. V. Kumar Chinnaiyan, Dr. J. Karpagam and Dr. V. J.Vijayalakshmi10.1 Introduction 27210.1.1 Photovoltaic Cell 27210.1.2 Photovoltaic Module 27210.1.3 Photovoltaic Array 27310.1.4 Working of Solar Cell 27310.1.5 Modeling of Solar Cell 27310.1.6 Effect of Irradiance 27710.1.7 Effect of Temperature 27910.1.8 Maximum Efficiency 28010.1.9 Fill Factor 28010.1.10 Modeling of Solar Panel 28110.1.11 Simulation Model of PV Interfaced Boost Chopper Unit 28210.2 Power Converters for Solar Power Applications 28310.2.1 Introduction 28310.2.2 DC-DC Converters 28410.2.2.1 Boost Converter 28510.2.2.2 Buck-Boost Converter 28610.2.3 DC-AC Converters 28810.2.3.1 Structure of Boost Cascaded Multilevel Inverter 28810.2.3.2 Analysis of DC Sources in BCMLI System 29810.2.4 Structure of Single-Phase Seven-Level BCDCLHBI 29810.2.4.1 Operation of Boost Cascaded DC Link Configuration 30010.2.4.2 Operation of H-Bridge Inverter Configuration 30910.2.4.3 Calculation of Losses in BCDCLHBI 31010.2.5 Realization of Boost Cascaded Dc Link H-Bridge Inverter 31210.2.5.1 Peripheral Interface Controller 31210.2.5.2 Features of PIC16F877A Microcontroller 31210.2.5.3 Equivalent Circuit of Boost Cascaded DC Link H-Bridge Inverter 31310.2.5.4 Design of Boost Chopper Parameters 31410.2.6 Conclusion 315References 31511 A Harris Hawks Optimization (HHO)–Based Parameter Assessment for Modified Two-Diode Model of Solar Cells 319Shilpy Goyal, Parag Nijhawan and Souvik Ganguli11.1 Introduction 32011.2 Problem Formulation 32211.3 Proposed Methodology of Work 32511.3.1 Exploration Phase 32611.3.2 Switching from Exploration to Exploitation 32711.3.3 Exploitation Phase 32711.4 Simulation Results 32711.5 Conclusions 340References 34112 A Large-Gain Continuous Input-Current DC-DC Converter Applicable for Solar Energy Systems 345Tohid Taghiloo, Kazem Varesi and Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban12.1 Introduction 34512.2 Proposed Configuration 34812.3 Steady-State Analysis 35112.4 Component Design 35412.5 Real Gain Relation 35512.6 Comparative Analysis 35612.7 Simulation Outcomes 36012.8 Conclusions 364References 36413 Stability Issues in Microgrids: A Review 369Sonam Khurana and Sheela Tiwari13.1 Introduction 37013.2 Stability Issues 37313.2.1 Control System Stability 37513.2.2 Power Supply and Balance Stability 37613.3 Analysis Techniques 37813.3.1 Large-Perturbation Stability 37913.3.2 Small-Perturbation Stability 38113.4 Microgrid Control System 38213.4.1 Control Methods for AC Microgrids 38413.4.1.1 Primary Control 38413.4.1.2 Secondary Control 38913.4.1.3 Tertiary Control 39113.4.2 Control Methods for DC Microgrid 39213.4.2.1 Primary Control 39213.4.2.2 Secondary Control 39413.4.2.3 Tertiary Control 39613.5 Conclusion 396References 39614 Theoretical Analysis of Torque Ripple Reduction in the SPMSM Drives Using PWM Control-Based Variable Switching Frequency 411Mohamed G. Hussien and Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban14.1 Introduction 41114.2 Prediction of Current and Torque Ripples 41314.2.1 Current Ripple Prediction 41314.2.2 Torque Ripple Prediction 41614.3 Variable Switching Frequency PWM (VSFPWM) Method for Torque Ripple Control 41814.4 Conclusion 422References 422Appendix: Simulation Model Circuits 424Main Model 424Speed & Current Loop Controllers 425VSFPWM for Torque Ripple Control 42615 Energy-Efficient System for Smart Cities 427Dushyant Kumar Singh, Ashish Kumar Singh and Himani Jerath15.1 Introduction 42815.2 Factors Promoting Energy-Efficient System 42915.2.1 Smart and Clean Energy 42915.2.2 Smart Grid 43015.2.3 Smart Infrastructure 43115.2.4 Smart Home 43115.2.4.1 Home Automation 43215.2.5 Smart Surveillance 43715.2.6 Smart Roads and Traffic Management 43815.2.7 Smart Agriculture and Water Distribution 439References 44016 Assessment of Economic and Environmental Impacts of Energy Conservation Strategies in a University Campus 441Sunday O. Oyedepo, Emmanuel G. Anifowose, Elizabeth O. Obembe, Joseph O. Dirisu, Shoaib Khanmohamadi, Kilanko O., Babalola P.O., Ohunakin O.S., Leramo R.O. and Olawole O.C.16.1 Introduction 44216.2 Materials and Methods 44416.2.1 Study Location 44516.2.2 Instrumentation 44616.2.2.1 Building Energy Simulation Tool – eQUEST Software 44616.2.3 Procedure for Data Collection and Analysis 44616.2.4 Analysis of Electrical Energy Consumption 44716.2.5 Economic Analysis 44816.2.6 Environmental Impacts Analysis 44916.3 Electricity Consumption Pattern in Covenant University 44916.3.1 Result of Electricity Demand in Covenant University for Various End Uses 45016.3.1.1 Results of Energy Audit in Cafeterias 1 & 2 45016.3.1.2 Results of Energy Audit in Academic Buildings (Mechanical Engineering Building) 45316.3.1.3 Results of Energy Audit in University Library 45516.3.1.4 Results of Energy Audit in Health Center 45716.3.1.5 Results of Energy Audit in the Student Halls of Residence (Daniel Hall) 45916.3.2 Comparison of Energy Use Among the University Buildings 46116.3.3 Results of Greenhouse Gas Emissions 46216.3.4 Qualitative Recommendation Analysis 46316.3.4.1 Replacement of Lighting Fixtures with LED Bulbs 46316.3.4.2 Installation of Solar Panels on the Roofs of Selected Buildings 46416.4 Conclusion 465References 46617 A Solar Energy–Based Multi-Level Inverter Structure with Enhanced Output-Voltage Quality and Increased Levels per Components 469Fatemeh Esmaeili, Kazem Varesi and Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban17.1 Introduction 47017.2 Proposed Basic Topology 47117.2.1 Topology of Basic Unit 47117.2.2 Operation of Basic Configuration 47217.2.3 Switching of Basic Unit for Different Magnitudes of Input Sources 47317.2.3.1 Symmetric Value of Input DC Supplies (P1) 47317.2.3.2 DC Sources with Binary Order Magnitudes (P2 ) 47517.2.3.3 DC Sources with Trinary Manner Magnitudes (P3) 47617.3 Proposed Extended Structure 47817.3.1 Structure 47817.3.2 Determination of Values of DC Supplies 47817.3.3 Blocking Voltage (BV) on Switches 47917.4 Efficiency and Losses Analysis in Suggested Structure 48017.4.1 Conduction Power Loss 48017.4.2 Switching Power Loss 48117.5 Comparison Results 48317.6 Nearest Level Technique 48517.7 Simulation Results 48517.8 Conclusions 490References 49018 Operations of Doubly Fed Induction Generators Applied in Green Energy Systems 495Bhagwan Shree Ram and Suman Lata Tripathi18.1 Introduction 49618.2 Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) Systems Operated by Wind Turbines 49618.3 Control Scheme of Direct Current Controller 49718.4 Simulation Studies of Direct Current Control of DFIG System 49818.5 Characteristics of DFIG at Transient and After Transient Situation 49918.6 Pulsation of DFIG Parameters with DCC Control Technique 50118.7 Effects of 5th and 7th Harmonics of IS and VGRID 50218.8 Load Contribution of DFIG in Grid with DCC Control Technique 50318.9 Speed Control Scheme of Generators 50518.10 DFIG Control Scheme 50618.11 General Description About PI Controller Design 50718.12 GSC Controller 50818.13 Characteristics of DFIG with Wind Speed Variations 50918.14 Conclusion 511References 51219 A Developed Large Boosting Factor DC-DC Converter Feasible for Photovoltaic Applications 515Hussein Mostafapour, Kazem Varesi and Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban19.1 Introduction 51519.2 Suggested Topology 51819.2.1 Configuration 51819.2.2 Operating Modes during CCM 52019.2.3 Operating Modes during DCM 52119.3 Steady State Analyses 52419.3.1 Gain Calculation 52419.3.2 Average Currents and Current Ripple of Inductors 52719.3.3 Stress on Semiconductors 52819.3.4 Efficiency 52919.4 Design Consideration 53119.4.1 Design Consideration of Capacitors 53119.4.2 Design Consideration of Inductors 53119.5 Comparison 53219.6 Simulation 53919.7 Conclusion 544References 54520 Photovoltaic-Based Switched-Capacitor Multi-Level Inverters with Self-Voltage Balancing and Step-Up Capabilities 549Saeid Deliri Khatoonabad, Kazem Varesi and Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban20.1 Introduction 55020.2 Suggested First (13-Level) Basic Configuration 55120.3 Suggested Second Basic Configuration 55620.4 Modulation Method 56120.5 Design Consideration of Capacitors 56220.6 Efficiency and Losses Analysis 56320.7 Simulation Results 56720.7.1 First Structure 56720.7.2 Second Structure 57120.8 Comparative Analysis 57520.9 Conclusions 578References 579Index 583