Medical Imaging

H. S. Sanjay, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Medical Electronics, M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology. He earned his PhD in electronics engineering from Jain University and a post-graduate degree in biomedical engineering from Manipal University. He has over 12 years of academic experience and has been teaching undergraduate students since 2009. He has contributed to five books and authored over 20 articles in scholarly journals, including being a reviewer for five journals. M. Niranjanamurthy, PhD, is an Assistant professor in the Department of Computer Applications, M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bangalore, Karnataka. He earned his PhD in computer science at JJTU. He has over 12 years of teaching experience and two years of industry experience as a software engineer. He has published 10 books and 80 papers in technical journals and conferences. He has 6 patents to his credit and has won numerous awards.

• Preface xiiiAcknowledgements xv1 Introduction to Medical Imaging 11.1 Medical Imaging -- An Insight 11.2 Types of Diagnostic Imaging Modalities 21.3 3D Rendering 231.4 Diagnostic Images 231.5 Medical Imaging in Pharmaceutical Applications 232 Fundamentals of X-Rays 272.1 Electromagnetic Radiations 272.2 Wave Nature 282.3 Photoelectric Effect 342.4 Interaction Between X-Ray and Tissues 362.5 Factors Affecting Attenuation Coefficients 382.6 Attenuation Due to Coherent Scattering (βcom) 392.7 Attenuation Due to Compton Scattering (βcom ) and Photoelectric Effect (βpho ) 392.8 Generation and Detection of X-Rays 412.9 X-Ray Generators 422.10 Filters 472.11 X-Ray Visualization 512.12 Detection of X-Rays 542.13 Radiation Detectors 602.14 X-Ray Diagnostic Approaches 622.15 Fluoroscopy 662.16 Angiography 672.17 Mammography 682.18 Xeroradiography 682.19 Image Subtraction 692.20 Conventional Tomography 732.21 Point Spread Function (PSF) 752.22 Image Noise 772.23 Image Contrast 782.24 Receiver Operating Curve (ROC) 792.25 Biological Effects of X-Ray Radiations@793 X-Ray Computed Tomography 853.1 Introduction to X-Ray Computed Tomography 853.2 CT Number 873.3 X-Ray Detectors in CT Machines 883.4 CT Imaging 893.5 Computer Tomography-Based Diagnostics 1043.6 Image Quality 1073.7 CT Machine -- The Hardware Aspects 1103.8 Generations of CT Machines 1123.9 Biological Effects and Safety-Based Aspects 1184 Ultrasound Imaging 1214.0 Ultrasound 1214.1 Basics of Acoustic Waves 1214.2 Propagation of Waves in Homogeneous Media 1224.3 Linear Wave Equation 1224.4 Loudness and Intensity 1234.5 Interference 1244.6 Attenuation 1254.7 Nonlinearity 1264.8 Propagation of Waves in Non-Homogeneous Media 1274.9 Reflection and Refraction 1274.10 Scattering 1294.11 Doppler Effect in the Propagation of the Acoustic Wave 1304.12 Generation and Detection of Ultrasound 1334.13 Ultrasonic Transducer 1344.14 Mechanical Matching 1354.15 Electrical Matching 1364.16 Ultrasound Imaging 1364.17 Image Reconstruction 1404.18 Schlieren System 1414.19 Doppler Imaging Approaches 1414.20 Tissue Characterization 1444.21 Ultrasound Image Characteristics 1464.22 Biological Effects of Ultrasound 1475 Radionuclide Imaging 1515.1 Radionuclide Imaging -- A Brief History 1515.2 An Insight Into Radioactivity 1525.3 Generation of Nuclear Emission 1595.4 Radionuclide Detection 1665.5 Diagnostic Approaches Using Radiation Detector Probes 1745.6 Radionuclide Image Characteristics 1755.7 Biological Effects of Radionuclides 1766 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 1796.1 Basics of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 1796.2 Larmor Frequency 1826.3 Relaxation 1856.4 Image Contrast 1886.5 Repetition Time (TR) and T1 Weighting 1886.6 Echo Time (TE) and T2 Weighting 1896.7 Saturation at Short Repetition Times 1916.8 Flip Angle/Tip Angle 1926.9 Presaturation 1926.10 Magnetization Transfer 1926.11 Slice Selection 1936.12 Spatial Encoding 1966.13 Phase Encoding 1966.14 Frequency Encoding 1976.15 K-Space 1986.16 Image Noise 1996.17 The MR Scanning Machine 2016.18 Pulse Sequences 2046.19 Parallel Imaging 2096.20 MR Artifacts 2106.21 Motion Artifacts 2116.22 Flow Artifacts 2116.23 Phase Wrapping 2116.24 Chemical Shift 2126.25 Magnetic Susceptibility 2136.26 Truncation Artifact 2136.27 Magic Angle 2136.28 Eddy Currents 214 6.29Partial Volume Artifact 2146.30 Inhomogeneous Fat Suppression 2146.31 Zipper Artifacts 2146.32 Crisscross Artifact 2156.33 Bioeffects and Safety 215Glossary-Appendix 215About the Authors 219Index 221