Manish Pandey is a Research (Assistant) Professor at the University Center for Research & Development (UCRD), Chandigarh University located in Mohali, Punjab, India. Prem C. Pandey is Assistant Professor in the School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar Institute of Eminence, Uttar Pradesh, India. Yogesh Ray is Scientist E at the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Ministry of Earth Sciences (Govt. of India), Goa, India. Aman Arora is a Scientific Officer/Scientist at Bihar Mausam Sewa Kendra (Govt. of Bihar), Patna, Bihar, India. Shridhar D. Jawak is currently working as a Senior Adviser in Remote Sensing at the Svalbard Integrated Arctic Earth Observing System (SIOS), Longyearbyen, Norway. Uma K. Shukla is a Professor of sedimentology at the Center for Advanced Study in Geology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.

• About the Editors xviiNotes on Contributors xxForeword xxvPreface xxviList of Acronyms xxviiiSection I Earth Observation (EO) and Remote Sensing (RS) Applications in Polar Studies 11 The Three Poles: Advances in Remote Sensing in Relation to Spheres of the Planet Earth 3Manish Pandey, Prem C. Pandey, Yogesh Ray, Aman Arora, Shridhar Digmabar Jawak, and Uma Kant Shukla1.1 Introduction 31.1.1 Earth as a System and Components of the Earth System 41.1.2 Role of the “Three Poles” and the Three Poles Regions in the Earth System 41.1.2.1 Defining the Three Poles, Three Poles Regions, and Their Geographical Extent 41.1.2.2 Interaction Among Components of the Earth System and Role of the Three Poles 51.1.3 Advancement of RS Technologies in Relation to Their Application in the Three Poles Regions 61.1.3.1 Remote Sensing Technology Advancements 61.1.3.2 Role of Remote Sensing (RS) in Mapping/Monitoring/Quantitative Analysis of Sub-Systems of Our Planet in the Three Poles Regions 71.2 Aim of the Book and Its Five Sections 111.3 Overview of the Contributing Chapters Covering Research About Different Aspects of the Sub-Systems of Our Planet in the Three Poles Regions 111.4 Summary and Recommendations 14References 152 Continuous Satellite Missions, Data Availability, and Nature of Future Satellite Missions with Implications to Polar Regions 24Jagriti Mishra, Takuya Inoue, and Avinash Kumar Pandey2.1 Introduction 242.1.1 Types of Orbit 242.1.1.1 High Earth Orbit (HEO) 252.1.1.2 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) 252.1.1.3 Semi-Synchronous Orbit 252.1.1.4 Molniya Orbit 252.1.1.5 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) 252.1.1.6 Polar Orbit and Sun-Synchronous Orbit 252.1.1.7 Lagrange’s Point 262.2 Satellite Missions and Data Availability 262.3 Future Satellite Missions 262.4 Applicability of Satellite Products in Three Poles Regions 322.5 Challenges and Limitations 332.6 Summary 34Acknowledgments 34References 343 Assessing the Accuracy of Digital Elevation Models for Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayas 36Prodip Mandal and Shraban Sarkar3.1 Introduction 363.2 Study Area 373.3 Materials and Methods 383.3.1 Generation of Cartosat-1 DEM and Orthoimage 383.3.2 TanDEM-X 403.3.3 Alos Palsar 403.3.4 DGPS Survey for Obtaining Ground Control Points (GCPs) 403.3.5 Datum Transformation 403.3.6 Accuracy Assessment Methods 403.3.6.1 Vertical Accuracy 413.3.6.2 Spatial Accuracy 413.4 Results and Discussion 413.4.1 Vertical Accuracy Assessment: Comparison of DEMs With Reference to GCPs 413.4.2 Vertical Accuracy of DEMs for Different Land Use Classes 413.4.2.1 Dense Forest 413.4.2.2 Open Forest 433.4.2.3 Tea Garden 433.4.2.4 Built-up Area 433.4.3 Spatial Accuracy Assessment: Comparison of DEMs With Reference to Stream Networks 433.5 Conclusions 45Acknowledgments 46References 464 An Overview of Morphometry Software Packages, Tools, and Add-ons 49Satarupa Mitra, Shailendra Pundir, Rahul Devrani, Aman Arora, Manish Pandey, Romulus Costache, and Saeid Janizadeh4.1 Introduction 494.2 Overview of Morphometry Tools and Toolboxes 504.3 Stand-Alone Tools 524.4 Tools that Run within Coding Bases 544.5 Conclusion 55References 555 Landscape Modeling, Glacier and Ice Sheet Dynamics, and the Three Poles: A Review of Models, Softwares, and Tools 58Satarupa Mitra, Rahul Devrani, Manish Pandey, Aman Arora, Romulus Costache, and Saeid Janizadeh5.1 Introduction 585.2 Taxonomy 595.2.1 Geomorphic Process-Based Models 605.2.2 Classification Based on Process of Modeling 605.2.2.1 Based on Geomorphic Processes 605.2.2.2 Based on Modeling Process 605.3 Working Principles for Geomorphological Models 615.3.1 Soil Production 615.3.2 Hillslope Transport 625.3.3 Land Sliding 625.3.4 Fluvial Incision and Transport 625.3.5 Glacial Erosion 625.4 Landscape Evolution Models 635.4.1 DEM-Based Models 635.4.2 Siberia 635.4.3 Golem 645.4.4 Cascade 645.4.5 ZScape 645.4.6 Child 645.4.7 Caesar 655.4.8 Apero 655.4.9 SIGNUM (Simple Integrated Geomorphological Numerical Model) 655.4.10 TTLEM (TopoToolbox Landscape Evolution Model) 1.0 655.5 Other Models 655.5.1 Delim 655.5.2 Eros 665.5.3 Landscape Evolution Model Using Global Search 665.5.4 eSCAPE 665.5.5 r.sim.terrain 1.0 665.6 Combined/Application-Specific Models 665.7 Machine Learning Models 665.8 LEMs Developed for Glaciated Landscapes 665.9 Some Significant Glacier Evolution Models 685.10 Models Developed for Alpine Regions 715.11 Models Developed for the Arctic Regio 725.12 Models Developed for the Antarctic Region 725.13 Conclusion and Future Prospects 75Acknowledgment 75Declaration of Competing Interest 75References 766 Spectral Indices Across Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors Relating to the Three Poles: An Overview of Applications, Challenges, and Future Prospects 83Mallikarjun Mishra, Kiran Kumari Singh, Prem C. Pandey, Rahul Devrani, Avinash Kumar Pandey, KN Prudhvi Raju, Prabhat Ranjan, Aman Arora, Romulus Costache, Saeid Janizadeh, Nguyen Thuy Linh, and Manish Pandey6.1 Introduction 836.2 Database and Methodology 846.3 Rationale of Different Spectral Indices Across RS Sensors and Platforms 856.4 RS Sensors and Platforms: Characteristics (Spatial, Temporal, Spectral, and Radiometric Resolutions) 876.5 Most Widely and Popularly Used Spectral Indices 876.5.1 Spectral Indices and Lithosphere 876.5.2 Spectral Indices and Hydrosphere 886.5.3 Spectral Indices and Atmosphere 906.5.4 Spectral Indices and Biosphere 916.5.5 Spectral Indices and Anthroposphere 1036.6 Thematic Evolution and Trends 1056.6.1 Thematic and Network Maps 1056.7 Summary and Recommendations 110Acknowledgments 111References 111Section II Antarctica: the Southernmost Continent Having the South Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 1177 Glacier Dynamics in East Antarctica: A Remote Sensing Perspective 119Kiledar Singh Tomar, Sangita Singh Tomar, Ashutosh Venkatesh Prasad, and Alvarinho J. Luis7.1 Introduction 1197.2 Satellite Remote Sensing of Glacier Dynamics in East Antarctica 1207.3 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Remote Sensing 1217.3.1 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using SAR Interferometry 1217.3.2 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Offset Tracking 1217.4 Remote Sensing Based Dynamics of PRG: A Case Study 1227.4.1 Data and Methods 1237.4.2 Results and Discussion 1237.4.2.1 Ice Front Location 1237.4.2.2 Glacier Velocity Over the Period of 2016–2019 1247.4.3 Summary and Conclusion 124References 1258 Terrestrial Deglaciation Signatures in East Antarctica 128Uday Sharma, Yogesh Ray, and Manish Pandey8.1 Introduction 1288.2 Geomorphology 1288.2.1 East Antarctica 1298.3 Landform Variation Concerning Various Sectors and Elevation 1328.3.1 Dronning Maud Land 1328.3.2 Enderby Land 1338.3.3 Mac. Robertson Land, Amery Ice Shelf, and Prince Elizabeth Land 1338.3.4 Wilkes Land 1358.4 Chronology 1358.4.1 Dronning Maud Land 1368.4.2 Enderby Land 1378.4.3 Mac. Robertson Land, Amery Ice Shelf ’s and Princess Elizabeth Land 1378.4.4 Wilkes Land 1388.5 Discussion 1388.6 Conclusion 139Acknowledgments 140References 1409 Geospatial Tools for Monitoring Vertebrate Populations in Antarctica With a Note on the Ecological Component of the Indian Antarctic Program 144Anant Pande, Ankita Anand, Shailendra Saini, and Kuppusamy Sivakumar9.1 Introduction 1449.2 Novel Geospatial Tools for Biodiversity Monitoring in Antarctica 1459.2.1 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 1459.2.2 Satellite Imagery 1479.3 Spatial Mapping of Seabirds Under the Indian Antarctic Program 1499.4 Recommendations to Incorporate New Tools for Antarctic Wildlife Monitoring Program 1519.5 Conclusion 152Acknowledgments 152References 15210 Bryophytes of Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica and Future Prospects 155Devendra Singh10.1 Introduction 15510.2 Study Area 15610.3 Materials and Methods 15610.4 Taxonomic Treatment 15610.5 Phytosociological Studies 17410.6 Results and Discussion 17510.7 Future Prospects 175Acknowledgments 177References 17711 Antarctic Sea Ice Variability and Trends Over the Last Four Decades 179Swathi M., Juhi Yadav, Avinash Kumar, and Rahul Mohan11.1 Introduction 17911.2 Datasets and Methods 18011.2.1 Sea Ice Extent Analysis 18011.2.2 Analysis of Physical Parameters 18111.3 Results and Discussion 18211.3.1 Sea Ice Variability in the Southern Ocean 18211.3.2 Sea Ice Distribution With Respect to Ocean-Atmospheric Temperature 18211.4 Summary and Conclusions 187Acknowledgments 188References 189Section III Himalayas: The Third Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 19112 Some Unresolved Problems in the Himalaya: A Synoptic View 193Om N. Bhargava12.1 Introduction 19312.2 Stratigraphic Ages, Basin Configuration, and Palaeontology 19312.3 Sedimentology 19512.4 Tectonics and Structure 19512.5 Magmatism and Geochronology 19612.6 Metamorphism 19612.7 Mineral Deposits 19612.8 Palaeomagnetic Studies 19712.9 Glaciological Studies 19712.10 Geomorphological Studies 19712.11 Conclusion 198Acknowledgments 198References 19813 Fluctuations of Kolahoi Glacier, Kashmir Valley, Its Assessment With Tree-Rings of Pinus wallichiana and Comparable Satellite Imageries and Field Survey Records 203Uttam Pandey, Santosh K. Shah, and Nivedita Mehrotra13.1 Introduction 20313.2 Tree-Ring Sampling Site and Data Acquisition 20413.3 Tree-Ring Chronology and Its Assessments 20613.4 Fluctuations of Kolahoi Glacier: Existing Records and Its Assessment With Tree-Rings 20713.5 Conclusions 210Acknowledgements 210References 21014 Applications of ICESat-2 Photon Data in the Third Pole Environment 213Giribabu Dandabathula14.1 Introduction 21314.2 Brief Background About NASA’s ICESat-2 Mission 21414.3 Terrain Profiling From ICESat-2 Photon Elevations Over a Mountainous Region 21614.4 Longitudinal Profiling of Rivers in a Mountainous Region 21614.5 Inland Water Level Detection in Mountainous Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 21614.6 Inferring Annual Variations of Water Levels in Mountain Lakes Using ICESat-2’s ATL13 Data Product 21814.7 Inferring Lake Ice Phenology in Mountainous Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 22114.8 Estimating Tree Heights in Mountain Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 22314.9 Utilization of ICESat-2 Photon Data to Generate Digital Elevation Models 22314.10 Conclusion 225Acknowledgments 226References 22615 Extreme Hydrological Event-Induced Temporal Variation in Soil Erosion of the Assiganga River Basin, NW Himalaya 230Rohit Kumar, Rahul Devrani, Astha Dangwal, Benidhar Deshmukh, and Som Dutt15.1 Introduction 23015.2 Study Area 23115.3 Methodology and Dataset 23315.3.1 Soil Erodibility (K Factor) 23415.3.2 Rainfall Erosivity (R Factor) 23415.3.3 Slope Length and Steepness Factor (LS Factor) 23515.3.4 Crop Management (C Factor) and Support Practices (P Factor) 23715.4 Results and Discussion 23915.4.1 Pre-Post R, C, and P Variation 23915.4.2 Soil Loss Spatial Pattern and Extent 24015.5 Conclusion 243Acknowledgments 243References 24316 Understanding the Present and Past Climate-Human-Vegetation Dynamics in the Indian Himalaya: A Comprehensive Review 247Mehta Bulbul, Yadav Ankit, Aljasil Chirakkal, Ambili Anoop, and Praveen K. Mishra16.1 Introduction 24716.2 Study Site 24816.3 Climate Vegetation Interaction in the Indian Himalaya 24816.3.1 Present-Day Conditions 24816.3.2 The Holocene Epoch 24916.3.2.1 Western Himalaya 24916.3.2.2 Eastern Himalaya 25216.3.2.3 Central Himalaya 25316.4 Conclusions 253References 25417 Flash Flood Susceptibility Mapping of a Himalayan River Basin Using Multi-Criteria Decision-Analysis and GIS 257Pratik Dash, Kasturi Mukherjee, and Surajit Ghosh17.1 Introduction 25717.2 Study Area 25817.3 Data and Methodology 25917.3.1 Data 25917.3.2 Multicriteria Analysis 25917.3.3 Selection and Classification of Flood Predictors 25917.3.4 Flood Hazard Index 26017.3.5 Validation 26017.4 Results and Discussion 26017.4.1 Flood Controlling Factors 26017.4.2 Multicriteria Analysis 26417.4.3 Flood Susceptibility Mapping 26417.4.4 Validation 26517.5 Conclusion 266References 26618 The Role of Himalayan Frontal Thrust in the Upliftment of Kimin Formation and the Migration of Sedimentary Basin in Arunachal Himalaya, Around Bandardewa, Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh 268Mondip Sarma, Sajeed Zaman Borah, Devojit Bezbaruah, Tapos Kumar Goswami, and Upendra Baral18.1 Introduction 26818.2 Geology 26918.2.1 Siwaliks of Arunachal Himalaya 26918.2.2 Geology of the Study Area 26918.3 Materials and Method 27218.4 Study of Alluvial Fan 27318.4.1 Description of Lithosections 27318.4.1.1 Kimin Formation 27318.4.1.2 Terrace Deposits 27418.4.2 Grain Size Analysis 27518.4.3 Cumulative Curve 27518.4.4 Calculation of Size Parameters 27518.4.4.1 Graphic Mean 27518.4.4.2 Graphic Standard Deviations 27518.4.4.3 Graphic Skewness 27518.4.4.4 Graphic Kurtosis 27518.4.5 Inter-Relationship of Size Parameters 27518.4.6 cm Plot 27818.5 Discussion and Conclusions 279Acknowledgments 280References 28019 Himalayan River Profile Sensitivity Assessment by Validating of DEMs and Comparison of Hydrological Tools 283Rahul Devrani, Rohit Kumar, Maneesh Kuruvath, Parv Kasana, Shailendra Pundir, Manish Pandey, and Sukumar Parida19.1 Introduction 28319.2 Study Area 28419.3 Methodology (LSDTopoTools) 28419.4 Details of DEM Datasets Used 28619.4.1 Alos-palsar 28619.4.2 Aster 28619.4.3 CartoDEM 28719.4.4 Copernicus DEM 28719.4.5 Nasa Dem 28719.4.6 Srtm 28919.5 Result and Discussion 28919.5.1 Assessment of DEMs Generated Watershed Boundary and Slope 28919.5.2 Sensivity of Longitudinal River Profiles Using Different DEMs 28919.6 Conclusion 295Acknowledgments 295References 29520 Glacier Ice Thickness Estimation in Indian Himalaya Using Geophysical Methods: A Brief Review 299Aditya Mishra, Harish Chandra Nainwal, and R. Shankar20.1 Introduction 29920.2 Geophysical Methods for Estimation of Glacier Ice Thickness 30020.2.1 Gravity 30020.2.2 Magnetic 30020.2.3 Resistivity 30020.2.4 Seismic 30020.2.5 Ground Penetrating Radar 30020.3 Geophysical Methods in the Indian Himalaya Region 30020.4 GPR Surveys in the Debris Covered Glaciers 30220.5 A Case Study on Debris-Covered Satopanth Glacier 30320.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 304Acknowledgments 304References 30521 Landscapes and Paleoclimate of the Ladakh Himalaya 308Anil Kumar, Rahul Devrani, and Pradeep Srivastava21.1 Introduction 30821.2 Geology of the Ladakh Himalaya 30821.2.1 Karakoram Region 31021.3 Past Climate Variability 31021.3.1 Early Holocene (~11.7 to 8.2 ka) 31021.3.2 Mid-Holocene (~8.2–4.2 ka) 31021.3.3 Late-Holocene (~4.2 ka–Present) 31121.4 Modern Climatic and Vegetation 31121.5 Landscapes in the Ladakh Region 31221.6 Glaciation and Associated Landforms 31521.7 Flood History and Disaster 31521.8 Conclusion 316Acknowledgment 316References 31622 A Review of Remote Sensing and GIS-Based Soil Loss Models With a Comparative Study From the Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basin 321Rohit Kumar, Rahul Devrani, and Benidhar Deshmukh22.1 Introduction 32122.2 Geospatial Models 32322.2.1 USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation) 32422.2.2 RUSLE (Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation) 32422.2.2.1 Rainfall Erosivity Factor “R” 32522.2.2.2 Soil Erodibility “K” 32522.2.2.3 Slope Length and Steepness “LS” 32522.2.2.4 Crop Management (C) 32622.2.2.5 Support Practices “P” 32622.2.3 MUSLE (Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation) 32622.3 A Case Study in Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basins Using RUSLE Model 32622.3.1 Study Area (Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basins) 32622.3.2 Dataset and Methodology 32722.3.3 Rate of Soil Loss in Rishiganga Basin (RG) 32822.3.4 Rate of Soil Loss in Lower Chambal Basin (LC) 32922.4 Discussion 33122.5 Conclusion 333Acknowledgments 334References 33423 Wetlands as Potential Zones to Understand Spatiotemporal Plant-Human-Climate Interactions: A Review on Palynological Perspective from Western and Eastern Himalaya 340Sandhya Misra, Anupam Sharma, Ravi Shankar Maurya, and Krishna G. Misra23.1 Introduction 34023.2 Importance of Wetlands 34023.3 Climate of Himalaya 34123.4 Vegetation Types in the Himalayan Region 34123.5 Wetlands as Sites for Floristic Analysis 34123.6 Wetlands as Sites for Past Vegetation-Climate-Human Interaction 34223.7 Conclusions 347Acknowledgments 348References 34824 Investigation of Land Use/Land Cover Changes in Alaknanda River Basin, Himalaya During 1976–2020 351Varun Narayan Mishra24.1 Introduction 35124.2 Materials and Methods 35224.2.1 Study Area 35224.2.2 Data Used 35224.2.3 Methods 35324.2.3.1 LULC Classification Scheme 35324.2.3.2 LULC Change Investigation 35324.3 Results and Discussion 35324.3.1 LULC Status 35424.3.2 LULC Change 35424.4 Conclusions 355References 355Section IV the Arctic: the Northernmost Ocean Having the North Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 35725 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic, the Antarctic, and the Himalaya: A Synoptic View from the Cryosphere Change Perspective 359Shyam Ranjan, Manish Pandey, and Rahul Raj25.1 Introduction 35925.2 Cryosphere and Its Influence on Socio-Ecological-Economical (GLASOECO) System 36025.2.1 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on Agriculture and Livestock 36025.2.2 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on Ecosystem and Environment 36125.2.3 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on the Economy 36225.2.4 Cryospheric Change as a Risk to Energy Security 36225.3 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic and the Antarctic Regions 36325.3.1 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic 36325.3.2 Hydrological Changes in the Antarctic 36325.4 Hydrological Changes in the Third Pole (Himalaya) 36325.4.1 Runoff Flooding 36425.4.2 Future Hydrological Change in the Third Pole 36425.5 Conclusion 365Acknowledgments 365References 36526 High-Resolution Remote Sensing for Mapping Glacier Facies in the Arctic 371Shridhar Digambar Jawak, Sagar Filipe Wankhede, Alvarinho J. Luis, and Keshava Balakrishna26.1 Introduction 37126.1.1 Glacier Facies Mapping Using Multispectral Data 37226.1.2 Image Classification 37226.1.3 Training Samples and Operator Skill 37326.1.4 The Test of Operator Influence 37326.2 The Geographical Area and Geospatial Data 37426.3 Methodology 37426.3.1 Radiometric Calibration and Digitization 37526.3.2 Operator Selections 37626.3.3 Classification and Reference Point Selection 37626.4 Results and Discussion 37626.5 Inferences and Recommendations 37826.6 Conclusion 378References 37827 Supraglacial Lake Filling Models: Examples From Greenland 381Prateek Gantayat27.1 Introduction 38127.2 Methods 38127.2.1 Supraglacial Lake FillING (SLING) 38127.2.2 Surface Routing and Lake Filling Model (SRLF) 38327.2.3 Surface Routing and Lake Filling With Channel Incision (SRLFCI) 38427.3 Study Area 38427.4 Data Used 38427.5 Results 38627.5.1 Results For SLING Model 38627.5.2 Results For SRLF Model 38727.5.3 Results For SRLFCI Model 38727.6 Discussion 38727.7 Conclusions 388Acknowledgments 388References 38828 Arctic Sea Level Change in Remote Sensing and New Generation Climate Models 390S. Chatterjee, R.P. Raj, A. Bonaduce, and R. Davy28.1 Introduction 39028.2 Remote Sensing of Arctic Ocean Sea-Level Changes 39028.3 Results and Discussion 39228.3.1 Observed Trend and Variability 39228.3.2 Arctic Ocean Sea Level and Large-Scale Atmospheric and Ocean Circulation 39228.3.3 Arctic Ocean Sea Level in CMIP6 39528.4 Conclusions 396Acknowledgments 398References 39829 Spatio-Temporal Variations of Aerosols Over the Polar Regions Based on Satellite Remote Sensing 401Rohit Srivastava29.1 Introduction 40129.2 Data and Methodology 40229.3 Results and Discussion 40329.3.1 Seasonal Variations of Relative Humidity (RH) Over Northern and Southern Polar Regions 40329.3.1.1 Arctic 40329.3.1.2 Antarctic 40329.3.2 Seasonal Variations of Winds over Northern and Southern Polar Regions 40429.3.2.1 Arctic 40429.3.2.2 Antarctic 40529.3.3 Seasonal Variations of Global Fire Activities 40529.3.4 Aerosol Variations Over the Northern and Southern Polar Region 40729.3.5 Seasonal Aerosol Variations Over the Northern and Southern Polar Regions 40729.3.5.1 Arctic 40729.3.5.2 Antarctic 40829.4 Conclusions 409Acknowledgments 410References 410Section V the Research Institutions on the “three Poles,” Data Pools, Data Sharing Policies, Career in Polar Science Research and Challenges 41330 Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Indian Antarctic Programme and Its International Relevance 415Anand K. Singh, Yogesh Ray, Shailendra Saini, Rahul Mohan, and M. Javed Beg30.1 Introduction 41530.2 India in the International Bodies for Antarctica 41530.3 Multi-Disciplinary Antarctic Research in the Last Decade 41630.4 International Relevance 41730.5 Concluding Remarks 418References 41831 Indian and International Research Coordination in the Arctic 420Archana Singh, David T. Divya, and K.P. Krishnan31.1 The Changing Arctic and Inherited Interest 42031.2 International Research Coordination 42131.3 Arctic Research Coordination at the National Level 42231.4 Coordination Among Students, Young Researchers, and Educators 424Acknowledgments 425Declaration of Competing Interest 425References 425Index 427

Manish Pandey is a Research (Assistant) Professor at the University Center for Research & Development (UCRD), Chandigarh University located in Mohali, Punjab, India. Prem C. Pandey is Assistant Professor in the School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar Institute of Eminence, Uttar Pradesh, India. Yogesh Ray is Scientist E at the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Ministry of Earth Sciences (Govt. of India), Goa, India. Aman Arora is a Scientific Officer/Scientist at Bihar Mausam Sewa Kendra (Govt. of Bihar), Patna, Bihar, India. Shridhar D. Jawak is currently working as a Senior Adviser in Remote Sensing at the Svalbard Integrated Arctic Earth Observing System (SIOS), Longyearbyen, Norway. Uma K. Shukla is a Professor of sedimentology at the Center for Advanced Study in Geology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.

• About the Editors xviiNotes on Contributors xxForeword xxvPreface xxviList of Acronyms xxviiiSection I Earth Observation (EO) and Remote Sensing (RS) Applications in Polar Studies 11 The Three Poles: Advances in Remote Sensing in Relation to Spheres of the Planet Earth 3Manish Pandey, Prem C. Pandey, Yogesh Ray, Aman Arora, Shridhar Digmabar Jawak, and Uma Kant Shukla1.1 Introduction 31.1.1 Earth as a System and Components of the Earth System 41.1.2 Role of the “Three Poles” and the Three Poles Regions in the Earth System 41.1.2.1 Defining the Three Poles, Three Poles Regions, and Their Geographical Extent 41.1.2.2 Interaction Among Components of the Earth System and Role of the Three Poles 51.1.3 Advancement of RS Technologies in Relation to Their Application in the Three Poles Regions 61.1.3.1 Remote Sensing Technology Advancements 61.1.3.2 Role of Remote Sensing (RS) in Mapping/Monitoring/Quantitative Analysis of Sub-Systems of Our Planet in the Three Poles Regions 71.2 Aim of the Book and Its Five Sections 111.3 Overview of the Contributing Chapters Covering Research About Different Aspects of the Sub-Systems of Our Planet in the Three Poles Regions 111.4 Summary and Recommendations 14References 152 Continuous Satellite Missions, Data Availability, and Nature of Future Satellite Missions with Implications to Polar Regions 24Jagriti Mishra, Takuya Inoue, and Avinash Kumar Pandey2.1 Introduction 242.1.1 Types of Orbit 242.1.1.1 High Earth Orbit (HEO) 252.1.1.2 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) 252.1.1.3 Semi-Synchronous Orbit 252.1.1.4 Molniya Orbit 252.1.1.5 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) 252.1.1.6 Polar Orbit and Sun-Synchronous Orbit 252.1.1.7 Lagrange’s Point 262.2 Satellite Missions and Data Availability 262.3 Future Satellite Missions 262.4 Applicability of Satellite Products in Three Poles Regions 322.5 Challenges and Limitations 332.6 Summary 34Acknowledgments 34References 343 Assessing the Accuracy of Digital Elevation Models for Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayas 36Prodip Mandal and Shraban Sarkar3.1 Introduction 363.2 Study Area 373.3 Materials and Methods 383.3.1 Generation of Cartosat-1 DEM and Orthoimage 383.3.2 TanDEM-X 403.3.3 Alos Palsar 403.3.4 DGPS Survey for Obtaining Ground Control Points (GCPs) 403.3.5 Datum Transformation 403.3.6 Accuracy Assessment Methods 403.3.6.1 Vertical Accuracy 413.3.6.2 Spatial Accuracy 413.4 Results and Discussion 413.4.1 Vertical Accuracy Assessment: Comparison of DEMs With Reference to GCPs 413.4.2 Vertical Accuracy of DEMs for Different Land Use Classes 413.4.2.1 Dense Forest 413.4.2.2 Open Forest 433.4.2.3 Tea Garden 433.4.2.4 Built-up Area 433.4.3 Spatial Accuracy Assessment: Comparison of DEMs With Reference to Stream Networks 433.5 Conclusions 45Acknowledgments 46References 464 An Overview of Morphometry Software Packages, Tools, and Add-ons 49Satarupa Mitra, Shailendra Pundir, Rahul Devrani, Aman Arora, Manish Pandey, Romulus Costache, and Saeid Janizadeh4.1 Introduction 494.2 Overview of Morphometry Tools and Toolboxes 504.3 Stand-Alone Tools 524.4 Tools that Run within Coding Bases 544.5 Conclusion 55References 555 Landscape Modeling, Glacier and Ice Sheet Dynamics, and the Three Poles: A Review of Models, Softwares, and Tools 58Satarupa Mitra, Rahul Devrani, Manish Pandey, Aman Arora, Romulus Costache, and Saeid Janizadeh5.1 Introduction 585.2 Taxonomy 595.2.1 Geomorphic Process-Based Models 605.2.2 Classification Based on Process of Modeling 605.2.2.1 Based on Geomorphic Processes 605.2.2.2 Based on Modeling Process 605.3 Working Principles for Geomorphological Models 615.3.1 Soil Production 615.3.2 Hillslope Transport 625.3.3 Land Sliding 625.3.4 Fluvial Incision and Transport 625.3.5 Glacial Erosion 625.4 Landscape Evolution Models 635.4.1 DEM-Based Models 635.4.2 Siberia 635.4.3 Golem 645.4.4 Cascade 645.4.5 ZScape 645.4.6 Child 645.4.7 Caesar 655.4.8 Apero 655.4.9 SIGNUM (Simple Integrated Geomorphological Numerical Model) 655.4.10 TTLEM (TopoToolbox Landscape Evolution Model) 1.0 655.5 Other Models 655.5.1 Delim 655.5.2 Eros 665.5.3 Landscape Evolution Model Using Global Search 665.5.4 eSCAPE 665.5.5 r.sim.terrain 1.0 665.6 Combined/Application-Specific Models 665.7 Machine Learning Models 665.8 LEMs Developed for Glaciated Landscapes 665.9 Some Significant Glacier Evolution Models 685.10 Models Developed for Alpine Regions 715.11 Models Developed for the Arctic Regio 725.12 Models Developed for the Antarctic Region 725.13 Conclusion and Future Prospects 75Acknowledgment 75Declaration of Competing Interest 75References 766 Spectral Indices Across Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors Relating to the Three Poles: An Overview of Applications, Challenges, and Future Prospects 83Mallikarjun Mishra, Kiran Kumari Singh, Prem C. Pandey, Rahul Devrani, Avinash Kumar Pandey, KN Prudhvi Raju, Prabhat Ranjan, Aman Arora, Romulus Costache, Saeid Janizadeh, Nguyen Thuy Linh, and Manish Pandey6.1 Introduction 836.2 Database and Methodology 846.3 Rationale of Different Spectral Indices Across RS Sensors and Platforms 856.4 RS Sensors and Platforms: Characteristics (Spatial, Temporal, Spectral, and Radiometric Resolutions) 876.5 Most Widely and Popularly Used Spectral Indices 876.5.1 Spectral Indices and Lithosphere 876.5.2 Spectral Indices and Hydrosphere 886.5.3 Spectral Indices and Atmosphere 906.5.4 Spectral Indices and Biosphere 916.5.5 Spectral Indices and Anthroposphere 1036.6 Thematic Evolution and Trends 1056.6.1 Thematic and Network Maps 1056.7 Summary and Recommendations 110Acknowledgments 111References 111Section II Antarctica: the Southernmost Continent Having the South Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 1177 Glacier Dynamics in East Antarctica: A Remote Sensing Perspective 119Kiledar Singh Tomar, Sangita Singh Tomar, Ashutosh Venkatesh Prasad, and Alvarinho J. Luis7.1 Introduction 1197.2 Satellite Remote Sensing of Glacier Dynamics in East Antarctica 1207.3 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Remote Sensing 1217.3.1 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using SAR Interferometry 1217.3.2 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Offset Tracking 1217.4 Remote Sensing Based Dynamics of PRG: A Case Study 1227.4.1 Data and Methods 1237.4.2 Results and Discussion 1237.4.2.1 Ice Front Location 1237.4.2.2 Glacier Velocity Over the Period of 2016–2019 1247.4.3 Summary and Conclusion 124References 1258 Terrestrial Deglaciation Signatures in East Antarctica 128Uday Sharma, Yogesh Ray, and Manish Pandey8.1 Introduction 1288.2 Geomorphology 1288.2.1 East Antarctica 1298.3 Landform Variation Concerning Various Sectors and Elevation 1328.3.1 Dronning Maud Land 1328.3.2 Enderby Land 1338.3.3 Mac. Robertson Land, Amery Ice Shelf, and Prince Elizabeth Land 1338.3.4 Wilkes Land 1358.4 Chronology 1358.4.1 Dronning Maud Land 1368.4.2 Enderby Land 1378.4.3 Mac. Robertson Land, Amery Ice Shelf ’s and Princess Elizabeth Land 1378.4.4 Wilkes Land 1388.5 Discussion 1388.6 Conclusion 139Acknowledgments 140References 1409 Geospatial Tools for Monitoring Vertebrate Populations in Antarctica With a Note on the Ecological Component of the Indian Antarctic Program 144Anant Pande, Ankita Anand, Shailendra Saini, and Kuppusamy Sivakumar9.1 Introduction 1449.2 Novel Geospatial Tools for Biodiversity Monitoring in Antarctica 1459.2.1 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 1459.2.2 Satellite Imagery 1479.3 Spatial Mapping of Seabirds Under the Indian Antarctic Program 1499.4 Recommendations to Incorporate New Tools for Antarctic Wildlife Monitoring Program 1519.5 Conclusion 152Acknowledgments 152References 15210 Bryophytes of Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica and Future Prospects 155Devendra Singh10.1 Introduction 15510.2 Study Area 15610.3 Materials and Methods 15610.4 Taxonomic Treatment 15610.5 Phytosociological Studies 17410.6 Results and Discussion 17510.7 Future Prospects 175Acknowledgments 177References 17711 Antarctic Sea Ice Variability and Trends Over the Last Four Decades 179Swathi M., Juhi Yadav, Avinash Kumar, and Rahul Mohan11.1 Introduction 17911.2 Datasets and Methods 18011.2.1 Sea Ice Extent Analysis 18011.2.2 Analysis of Physical Parameters 18111.3 Results and Discussion 18211.3.1 Sea Ice Variability in the Southern Ocean 18211.3.2 Sea Ice Distribution With Respect to Ocean-Atmospheric Temperature 18211.4 Summary and Conclusions 187Acknowledgments 188References 189Section III Himalayas: The Third Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 19112 Some Unresolved Problems in the Himalaya: A Synoptic View 193Om N. Bhargava12.1 Introduction 19312.2 Stratigraphic Ages, Basin Configuration, and Palaeontology 19312.3 Sedimentology 19512.4 Tectonics and Structure 19512.5 Magmatism and Geochronology 19612.6 Metamorphism 19612.7 Mineral Deposits 19612.8 Palaeomagnetic Studies 19712.9 Glaciological Studies 19712.10 Geomorphological Studies 19712.11 Conclusion 198Acknowledgments 198References 19813 Fluctuations of Kolahoi Glacier, Kashmir Valley, Its Assessment With Tree-Rings of Pinus wallichiana and Comparable Satellite Imageries and Field Survey Records 203Uttam Pandey, Santosh K. Shah, and Nivedita Mehrotra13.1 Introduction 20313.2 Tree-Ring Sampling Site and Data Acquisition 20413.3 Tree-Ring Chronology and Its Assessments 20613.4 Fluctuations of Kolahoi Glacier: Existing Records and Its Assessment With Tree-Rings 20713.5 Conclusions 210Acknowledgements 210References 21014 Applications of ICESat-2 Photon Data in the Third Pole Environment 213Giribabu Dandabathula14.1 Introduction 21314.2 Brief Background About NASA’s ICESat-2 Mission 21414.3 Terrain Profiling From ICESat-2 Photon Elevations Over a Mountainous Region 21614.4 Longitudinal Profiling of Rivers in a Mountainous Region 21614.5 Inland Water Level Detection in Mountainous Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 21614.6 Inferring Annual Variations of Water Levels in Mountain Lakes Using ICESat-2’s ATL13 Data Product 21814.7 Inferring Lake Ice Phenology in Mountainous Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 22114.8 Estimating Tree Heights in Mountain Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 22314.9 Utilization of ICESat-2 Photon Data to Generate Digital Elevation Models 22314.10 Conclusion 225Acknowledgments 226References 22615 Extreme Hydrological Event-Induced Temporal Variation in Soil Erosion of the Assiganga River Basin, NW Himalaya 230Rohit Kumar, Rahul Devrani, Astha Dangwal, Benidhar Deshmukh, and Som Dutt15.1 Introduction 23015.2 Study Area 23115.3 Methodology and Dataset 23315.3.1 Soil Erodibility (K Factor) 23415.3.2 Rainfall Erosivity (R Factor) 23415.3.3 Slope Length and Steepness Factor (LS Factor) 23515.3.4 Crop Management (C Factor) and Support Practices (P Factor) 23715.4 Results and Discussion 23915.4.1 Pre-Post R, C, and P Variation 23915.4.2 Soil Loss Spatial Pattern and Extent 24015.5 Conclusion 243Acknowledgments 243References 24316 Understanding the Present and Past Climate-Human-Vegetation Dynamics in the Indian Himalaya: A Comprehensive Review 247Mehta Bulbul, Yadav Ankit, Aljasil Chirakkal, Ambili Anoop, and Praveen K. Mishra16.1 Introduction 24716.2 Study Site 24816.3 Climate Vegetation Interaction in the Indian Himalaya 24816.3.1 Present-Day Conditions 24816.3.2 The Holocene Epoch 24916.3.2.1 Western Himalaya 24916.3.2.2 Eastern Himalaya 25216.3.2.3 Central Himalaya 25316.4 Conclusions 253References 25417 Flash Flood Susceptibility Mapping of a Himalayan River Basin Using Multi-Criteria Decision-Analysis and GIS 257Pratik Dash, Kasturi Mukherjee, and Surajit Ghosh17.1 Introduction 25717.2 Study Area 25817.3 Data and Methodology 25917.3.1 Data 25917.3.2 Multicriteria Analysis 25917.3.3 Selection and Classification of Flood Predictors 25917.3.4 Flood Hazard Index 26017.3.5 Validation 26017.4 Results and Discussion 26017.4.1 Flood Controlling Factors 26017.4.2 Multicriteria Analysis 26417.4.3 Flood Susceptibility Mapping 26417.4.4 Validation 26517.5 Conclusion 266References 26618 The Role of Himalayan Frontal Thrust in the Upliftment of Kimin Formation and the Migration of Sedimentary Basin in Arunachal Himalaya, Around Bandardewa, Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh 268Mondip Sarma, Sajeed Zaman Borah, Devojit Bezbaruah, Tapos Kumar Goswami, and Upendra Baral18.1 Introduction 26818.2 Geology 26918.2.1 Siwaliks of Arunachal Himalaya 26918.2.2 Geology of the Study Area 26918.3 Materials and Method 27218.4 Study of Alluvial Fan 27318.4.1 Description of Lithosections 27318.4.1.1 Kimin Formation 27318.4.1.2 Terrace Deposits 27418.4.2 Grain Size Analysis 27518.4.3 Cumulative Curve 27518.4.4 Calculation of Size Parameters 27518.4.4.1 Graphic Mean 27518.4.4.2 Graphic Standard Deviations 27518.4.4.3 Graphic Skewness 27518.4.4.4 Graphic Kurtosis 27518.4.5 Inter-Relationship of Size Parameters 27518.4.6 cm Plot 27818.5 Discussion and Conclusions 279Acknowledgments 280References 28019 Himalayan River Profile Sensitivity Assessment by Validating of DEMs and Comparison of Hydrological Tools 283Rahul Devrani, Rohit Kumar, Maneesh Kuruvath, Parv Kasana, Shailendra Pundir, Manish Pandey, and Sukumar Parida19.1 Introduction 28319.2 Study Area 28419.3 Methodology (LSDTopoTools) 28419.4 Details of DEM Datasets Used 28619.4.1 Alos-palsar 28619.4.2 Aster 28619.4.3 CartoDEM 28719.4.4 Copernicus DEM 28719.4.5 Nasa Dem 28719.4.6 Srtm 28919.5 Result and Discussion 28919.5.1 Assessment of DEMs Generated Watershed Boundary and Slope 28919.5.2 Sensivity of Longitudinal River Profiles Using Different DEMs 28919.6 Conclusion 295Acknowledgments 295References 29520 Glacier Ice Thickness Estimation in Indian Himalaya Using Geophysical Methods: A Brief Review 299Aditya Mishra, Harish Chandra Nainwal, and R. Shankar20.1 Introduction 29920.2 Geophysical Methods for Estimation of Glacier Ice Thickness 30020.2.1 Gravity 30020.2.2 Magnetic 30020.2.3 Resistivity 30020.2.4 Seismic 30020.2.5 Ground Penetrating Radar 30020.3 Geophysical Methods in the Indian Himalaya Region 30020.4 GPR Surveys in the Debris Covered Glaciers 30220.5 A Case Study on Debris-Covered Satopanth Glacier 30320.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 304Acknowledgments 304References 30521 Landscapes and Paleoclimate of the Ladakh Himalaya 308Anil Kumar, Rahul Devrani, and Pradeep Srivastava21.1 Introduction 30821.2 Geology of the Ladakh Himalaya 30821.2.1 Karakoram Region 31021.3 Past Climate Variability 31021.3.1 Early Holocene (~11.7 to 8.2 ka) 31021.3.2 Mid-Holocene (~8.2–4.2 ka) 31021.3.3 Late-Holocene (~4.2 ka–Present) 31121.4 Modern Climatic and Vegetation 31121.5 Landscapes in the Ladakh Region 31221.6 Glaciation and Associated Landforms 31521.7 Flood History and Disaster 31521.8 Conclusion 316Acknowledgment 316References 31622 A Review of Remote Sensing and GIS-Based Soil Loss Models With a Comparative Study From the Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basin 321Rohit Kumar, Rahul Devrani, and Benidhar Deshmukh22.1 Introduction 32122.2 Geospatial Models 32322.2.1 USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation) 32422.2.2 RUSLE (Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation) 32422.2.2.1 Rainfall Erosivity Factor “R” 32522.2.2.2 Soil Erodibility “K” 32522.2.2.3 Slope Length and Steepness “LS” 32522.2.2.4 Crop Management (C) 32622.2.2.5 Support Practices “P” 32622.2.3 MUSLE (Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation) 32622.3 A Case Study in Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basins Using RUSLE Model 32622.3.1 Study Area (Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basins) 32622.3.2 Dataset and Methodology 32722.3.3 Rate of Soil Loss in Rishiganga Basin (RG) 32822.3.4 Rate of Soil Loss in Lower Chambal Basin (LC) 32922.4 Discussion 33122.5 Conclusion 333Acknowledgments 334References 33423 Wetlands as Potential Zones to Understand Spatiotemporal Plant-Human-Climate Interactions: A Review on Palynological Perspective from Western and Eastern Himalaya 340Sandhya Misra, Anupam Sharma, Ravi Shankar Maurya, and Krishna G. Misra23.1 Introduction 34023.2 Importance of Wetlands 34023.3 Climate of Himalaya 34123.4 Vegetation Types in the Himalayan Region 34123.5 Wetlands as Sites for Floristic Analysis 34123.6 Wetlands as Sites for Past Vegetation-Climate-Human Interaction 34223.7 Conclusions 347Acknowledgments 348References 34824 Investigation of Land Use/Land Cover Changes in Alaknanda River Basin, Himalaya During 1976–2020 351Varun Narayan Mishra24.1 Introduction 35124.2 Materials and Methods 35224.2.1 Study Area 35224.2.2 Data Used 35224.2.3 Methods 35324.2.3.1 LULC Classification Scheme 35324.2.3.2 LULC Change Investigation 35324.3 Results and Discussion 35324.3.1 LULC Status 35424.3.2 LULC Change 35424.4 Conclusions 355References 355Section IV the Arctic: the Northernmost Ocean Having the North Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 35725 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic, the Antarctic, and the Himalaya: A Synoptic View from the Cryosphere Change Perspective 359Shyam Ranjan, Manish Pandey, and Rahul Raj25.1 Introduction 35925.2 Cryosphere and Its Influence on Socio-Ecological-Economical (GLASOECO) System 36025.2.1 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on Agriculture and Livestock 36025.2.2 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on Ecosystem and Environment 36125.2.3 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on the Economy 36225.2.4 Cryospheric Change as a Risk to Energy Security 36225.3 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic and the Antarctic Regions 36325.3.1 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic 36325.3.2 Hydrological Changes in the Antarctic 36325.4 Hydrological Changes in the Third Pole (Himalaya) 36325.4.1 Runoff Flooding 36425.4.2 Future Hydrological Change in the Third Pole 36425.5 Conclusion 365Acknowledgments 365References 36526 High-Resolution Remote Sensing for Mapping Glacier Facies in the Arctic 371Shridhar Digambar Jawak, Sagar Filipe Wankhede, Alvarinho J. Luis, and Keshava Balakrishna26.1 Introduction 37126.1.1 Glacier Facies Mapping Using Multispectral Data 37226.1.2 Image Classification 37226.1.3 Training Samples and Operator Skill 37326.1.4 The Test of Operator Influence 37326.2 The Geographical Area and Geospatial Data 37426.3 Methodology 37426.3.1 Radiometric Calibration and Digitization 37526.3.2 Operator Selections 37626.3.3 Classification and Reference Point Selection 37626.4 Results and Discussion 37626.5 Inferences and Recommendations 37826.6 Conclusion 378References 37827 Supraglacial Lake Filling Models: Examples From Greenland 381Prateek Gantayat27.1 Introduction 38127.2 Methods 38127.2.1 Supraglacial Lake FillING (SLING) 38127.2.2 Surface Routing and Lake Filling Model (SRLF) 38327.2.3 Surface Routing and Lake Filling With Channel Incision (SRLFCI) 38427.3 Study Area 38427.4 Data Used 38427.5 Results 38627.5.1 Results For SLING Model 38627.5.2 Results For SRLF Model 38727.5.3 Results For SRLFCI Model 38727.6 Discussion 38727.7 Conclusions 388Acknowledgments 388References 38828 Arctic Sea Level Change in Remote Sensing and New Generation Climate Models 390S. Chatterjee, R.P. Raj, A. Bonaduce, and R. Davy28.1 Introduction 39028.2 Remote Sensing of Arctic Ocean Sea-Level Changes 39028.3 Results and Discussion 39228.3.1 Observed Trend and Variability 39228.3.2 Arctic Ocean Sea Level and Large-Scale Atmospheric and Ocean Circulation 39228.3.3 Arctic Ocean Sea Level in CMIP6 39528.4 Conclusions 396Acknowledgments 398References 39829 Spatio-Temporal Variations of Aerosols Over the Polar Regions Based on Satellite Remote Sensing 401Rohit Srivastava29.1 Introduction 40129.2 Data and Methodology 40229.3 Results and Discussion 40329.3.1 Seasonal Variations of Relative Humidity (RH) Over Northern and Southern Polar Regions 40329.3.1.1 Arctic 40329.3.1.2 Antarctic 40329.3.2 Seasonal Variations of Winds over Northern and Southern Polar Regions 40429.3.2.1 Arctic 40429.3.2.2 Antarctic 40529.3.3 Seasonal Variations of Global Fire Activities 40529.3.4 Aerosol Variations Over the Northern and Southern Polar Region 40729.3.5 Seasonal Aerosol Variations Over the Northern and Southern Polar Regions 40729.3.5.1 Arctic 40729.3.5.2 Antarctic 40829.4 Conclusions 409Acknowledgments 410References 410Section V the Research Institutions on the “three Poles,” Data Pools, Data Sharing Policies, Career in Polar Science Research and Challenges 41330 Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Indian Antarctic Programme and Its International Relevance 415Anand K. Singh, Yogesh Ray, Shailendra Saini, Rahul Mohan, and M. Javed Beg30.1 Introduction 41530.2 India in the International Bodies for Antarctica 41530.3 Multi-Disciplinary Antarctic Research in the Last Decade 41630.4 International Relevance 41730.5 Concluding Remarks 418References 41831 Indian and International Research Coordination in the Arctic 420Archana Singh, David T. Divya, and K.P. Krishnan31.1 The Changing Arctic and Inherited Interest 42031.2 International Research Coordination 42131.3 Arctic Research Coordination at the National Level 42231.4 Coordination Among Students, Young Researchers, and Educators 424Acknowledgments 425Declaration of Competing Interest 425References 425Index 427

Manish Pandey is a Research (Assistant) Professor at the University Center for Research & Development (UCRD), Chandigarh University located in Mohali, Punjab, India. Prem C. Pandey is Assistant Professor in the School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar Institute of Eminence, Uttar Pradesh, India. Yogesh Ray is Scientist E at the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Ministry of Earth Sciences (Govt. of India), Goa, India. Aman Arora is a Scientific Officer/Scientist at Bihar Mausam Sewa Kendra (Govt. of Bihar), Patna, Bihar, India. Shridhar D. Jawak is currently working as a Senior Adviser in Remote Sensing at the Svalbard Integrated Arctic Earth Observing System (SIOS), Longyearbyen, Norway. Uma K. Shukla is a Professor of sedimentology at the Center for Advanced Study in Geology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.

• About the Editors xviiNotes on Contributors xxForeword xxvPreface xxviList of Acronyms xxviiiSection I Earth Observation (EO) and Remote Sensing (RS) Applications in Polar Studies 11 The Three Poles: Advances in Remote Sensing in Relation to Spheres of the Planet Earth 3Manish Pandey, Prem C. Pandey, Yogesh Ray, Aman Arora, Shridhar Digmabar Jawak, and Uma Kant Shukla1.1 Introduction 31.1.1 Earth as a System and Components of the Earth System 41.1.2 Role of the “Three Poles” and the Three Poles Regions in the Earth System 41.1.2.1 Defining the Three Poles, Three Poles Regions, and Their Geographical Extent 41.1.2.2 Interaction Among Components of the Earth System and Role of the Three Poles 51.1.3 Advancement of RS Technologies in Relation to Their Application in the Three Poles Regions 61.1.3.1 Remote Sensing Technology Advancements 61.1.3.2 Role of Remote Sensing (RS) in Mapping/Monitoring/Quantitative Analysis of Sub-Systems of Our Planet in the Three Poles Regions 71.2 Aim of the Book and Its Five Sections 111.3 Overview of the Contributing Chapters Covering Research About Different Aspects of the Sub-Systems of Our Planet in the Three Poles Regions 111.4 Summary and Recommendations 14References 152 Continuous Satellite Missions, Data Availability, and Nature of Future Satellite Missions with Implications to Polar Regions 24Jagriti Mishra, Takuya Inoue, and Avinash Kumar Pandey2.1 Introduction 242.1.1 Types of Orbit 242.1.1.1 High Earth Orbit (HEO) 252.1.1.2 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) 252.1.1.3 Semi-Synchronous Orbit 252.1.1.4 Molniya Orbit 252.1.1.5 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) 252.1.1.6 Polar Orbit and Sun-Synchronous Orbit 252.1.1.7 Lagrange’s Point 262.2 Satellite Missions and Data Availability 262.3 Future Satellite Missions 262.4 Applicability of Satellite Products in Three Poles Regions 322.5 Challenges and Limitations 332.6 Summary 34Acknowledgments 34References 343 Assessing the Accuracy of Digital Elevation Models for Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayas 36Prodip Mandal and Shraban Sarkar3.1 Introduction 363.2 Study Area 373.3 Materials and Methods 383.3.1 Generation of Cartosat-1 DEM and Orthoimage 383.3.2 TanDEM-X 403.3.3 Alos Palsar 403.3.4 DGPS Survey for Obtaining Ground Control Points (GCPs) 403.3.5 Datum Transformation 403.3.6 Accuracy Assessment Methods 403.3.6.1 Vertical Accuracy 413.3.6.2 Spatial Accuracy 413.4 Results and Discussion 413.4.1 Vertical Accuracy Assessment: Comparison of DEMs With Reference to GCPs 413.4.2 Vertical Accuracy of DEMs for Different Land Use Classes 413.4.2.1 Dense Forest 413.4.2.2 Open Forest 433.4.2.3 Tea Garden 433.4.2.4 Built-up Area 433.4.3 Spatial Accuracy Assessment: Comparison of DEMs With Reference to Stream Networks 433.5 Conclusions 45Acknowledgments 46References 464 An Overview of Morphometry Software Packages, Tools, and Add-ons 49Satarupa Mitra, Shailendra Pundir, Rahul Devrani, Aman Arora, Manish Pandey, Romulus Costache, and Saeid Janizadeh4.1 Introduction 494.2 Overview of Morphometry Tools and Toolboxes 504.3 Stand-Alone Tools 524.4 Tools that Run within Coding Bases 544.5 Conclusion 55References 555 Landscape Modeling, Glacier and Ice Sheet Dynamics, and the Three Poles: A Review of Models, Softwares, and Tools 58Satarupa Mitra, Rahul Devrani, Manish Pandey, Aman Arora, Romulus Costache, and Saeid Janizadeh5.1 Introduction 585.2 Taxonomy 595.2.1 Geomorphic Process-Based Models 605.2.2 Classification Based on Process of Modeling 605.2.2.1 Based on Geomorphic Processes 605.2.2.2 Based on Modeling Process 605.3 Working Principles for Geomorphological Models 615.3.1 Soil Production 615.3.2 Hillslope Transport 625.3.3 Land Sliding 625.3.4 Fluvial Incision and Transport 625.3.5 Glacial Erosion 625.4 Landscape Evolution Models 635.4.1 DEM-Based Models 635.4.2 Siberia 635.4.3 Golem 645.4.4 Cascade 645.4.5 ZScape 645.4.6 Child 645.4.7 Caesar 655.4.8 Apero 655.4.9 SIGNUM (Simple Integrated Geomorphological Numerical Model) 655.4.10 TTLEM (TopoToolbox Landscape Evolution Model) 1.0 655.5 Other Models 655.5.1 Delim 655.5.2 Eros 665.5.3 Landscape Evolution Model Using Global Search 665.5.4 eSCAPE 665.5.5 r.sim.terrain 1.0 665.6 Combined/Application-Specific Models 665.7 Machine Learning Models 665.8 LEMs Developed for Glaciated Landscapes 665.9 Some Significant Glacier Evolution Models 685.10 Models Developed for Alpine Regions 715.11 Models Developed for the Arctic Regio 725.12 Models Developed for the Antarctic Region 725.13 Conclusion and Future Prospects 75Acknowledgment 75Declaration of Competing Interest 75References 766 Spectral Indices Across Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors Relating to the Three Poles: An Overview of Applications, Challenges, and Future Prospects 83Mallikarjun Mishra, Kiran Kumari Singh, Prem C. Pandey, Rahul Devrani, Avinash Kumar Pandey, KN Prudhvi Raju, Prabhat Ranjan, Aman Arora, Romulus Costache, Saeid Janizadeh, Nguyen Thuy Linh, and Manish Pandey6.1 Introduction 836.2 Database and Methodology 846.3 Rationale of Different Spectral Indices Across RS Sensors and Platforms 856.4 RS Sensors and Platforms: Characteristics (Spatial, Temporal, Spectral, and Radiometric Resolutions) 876.5 Most Widely and Popularly Used Spectral Indices 876.5.1 Spectral Indices and Lithosphere 876.5.2 Spectral Indices and Hydrosphere 886.5.3 Spectral Indices and Atmosphere 906.5.4 Spectral Indices and Biosphere 916.5.5 Spectral Indices and Anthroposphere 1036.6 Thematic Evolution and Trends 1056.6.1 Thematic and Network Maps 1056.7 Summary and Recommendations 110Acknowledgments 111References 111Section II Antarctica: the Southernmost Continent Having the South Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 1177 Glacier Dynamics in East Antarctica: A Remote Sensing Perspective 119Kiledar Singh Tomar, Sangita Singh Tomar, Ashutosh Venkatesh Prasad, and Alvarinho J. Luis7.1 Introduction 1197.2 Satellite Remote Sensing of Glacier Dynamics in East Antarctica 1207.3 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Remote Sensing 1217.3.1 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using SAR Interferometry 1217.3.2 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Offset Tracking 1217.4 Remote Sensing Based Dynamics of PRG: A Case Study 1227.4.1 Data and Methods 1237.4.2 Results and Discussion 1237.4.2.1 Ice Front Location 1237.4.2.2 Glacier Velocity Over the Period of 2016–2019 1247.4.3 Summary and Conclusion 124References 1258 Terrestrial Deglaciation Signatures in East Antarctica 128Uday Sharma, Yogesh Ray, and Manish Pandey8.1 Introduction 1288.2 Geomorphology 1288.2.1 East Antarctica 1298.3 Landform Variation Concerning Various Sectors and Elevation 1328.3.1 Dronning Maud Land 1328.3.2 Enderby Land 1338.3.3 Mac. Robertson Land, Amery Ice Shelf, and Prince Elizabeth Land 1338.3.4 Wilkes Land 1358.4 Chronology 1358.4.1 Dronning Maud Land 1368.4.2 Enderby Land 1378.4.3 Mac. Robertson Land, Amery Ice Shelf ’s and Princess Elizabeth Land 1378.4.4 Wilkes Land 1388.5 Discussion 1388.6 Conclusion 139Acknowledgments 140References 1409 Geospatial Tools for Monitoring Vertebrate Populations in Antarctica With a Note on the Ecological Component of the Indian Antarctic Program 144Anant Pande, Ankita Anand, Shailendra Saini, and Kuppusamy Sivakumar9.1 Introduction 1449.2 Novel Geospatial Tools for Biodiversity Monitoring in Antarctica 1459.2.1 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 1459.2.2 Satellite Imagery 1479.3 Spatial Mapping of Seabirds Under the Indian Antarctic Program 1499.4 Recommendations to Incorporate New Tools for Antarctic Wildlife Monitoring Program 1519.5 Conclusion 152Acknowledgments 152References 15210 Bryophytes of Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica and Future Prospects 155Devendra Singh10.1 Introduction 15510.2 Study Area 15610.3 Materials and Methods 15610.4 Taxonomic Treatment 15610.5 Phytosociological Studies 17410.6 Results and Discussion 17510.7 Future Prospects 175Acknowledgments 177References 17711 Antarctic Sea Ice Variability and Trends Over the Last Four Decades 179Swathi M., Juhi Yadav, Avinash Kumar, and Rahul Mohan11.1 Introduction 17911.2 Datasets and Methods 18011.2.1 Sea Ice Extent Analysis 18011.2.2 Analysis of Physical Parameters 18111.3 Results and Discussion 18211.3.1 Sea Ice Variability in the Southern Ocean 18211.3.2 Sea Ice Distribution With Respect to Ocean-Atmospheric Temperature 18211.4 Summary and Conclusions 187Acknowledgments 188References 189Section III Himalayas: The Third Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 19112 Some Unresolved Problems in the Himalaya: A Synoptic View 193Om N. Bhargava12.1 Introduction 19312.2 Stratigraphic Ages, Basin Configuration, and Palaeontology 19312.3 Sedimentology 19512.4 Tectonics and Structure 19512.5 Magmatism and Geochronology 19612.6 Metamorphism 19612.7 Mineral Deposits 19612.8 Palaeomagnetic Studies 19712.9 Glaciological Studies 19712.10 Geomorphological Studies 19712.11 Conclusion 198Acknowledgments 198References 19813 Fluctuations of Kolahoi Glacier, Kashmir Valley, Its Assessment With Tree-Rings of Pinus wallichiana and Comparable Satellite Imageries and Field Survey Records 203Uttam Pandey, Santosh K. Shah, and Nivedita Mehrotra13.1 Introduction 20313.2 Tree-Ring Sampling Site and Data Acquisition 20413.3 Tree-Ring Chronology and Its Assessments 20613.4 Fluctuations of Kolahoi Glacier: Existing Records and Its Assessment With Tree-Rings 20713.5 Conclusions 210Acknowledgements 210References 21014 Applications of ICESat-2 Photon Data in the Third Pole Environment 213Giribabu Dandabathula14.1 Introduction 21314.2 Brief Background About NASA’s ICESat-2 Mission 21414.3 Terrain Profiling From ICESat-2 Photon Elevations Over a Mountainous Region 21614.4 Longitudinal Profiling of Rivers in a Mountainous Region 21614.5 Inland Water Level Detection in Mountainous Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 21614.6 Inferring Annual Variations of Water Levels in Mountain Lakes Using ICESat-2’s ATL13 Data Product 21814.7 Inferring Lake Ice Phenology in Mountainous Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 22114.8 Estimating Tree Heights in Mountain Regions Using ICESat-2 Photon Data 22314.9 Utilization of ICESat-2 Photon Data to Generate Digital Elevation Models 22314.10 Conclusion 225Acknowledgments 226References 22615 Extreme Hydrological Event-Induced Temporal Variation in Soil Erosion of the Assiganga River Basin, NW Himalaya 230Rohit Kumar, Rahul Devrani, Astha Dangwal, Benidhar Deshmukh, and Som Dutt15.1 Introduction 23015.2 Study Area 23115.3 Methodology and Dataset 23315.3.1 Soil Erodibility (K Factor) 23415.3.2 Rainfall Erosivity (R Factor) 23415.3.3 Slope Length and Steepness Factor (LS Factor) 23515.3.4 Crop Management (C Factor) and Support Practices (P Factor) 23715.4 Results and Discussion 23915.4.1 Pre-Post R, C, and P Variation 23915.4.2 Soil Loss Spatial Pattern and Extent 24015.5 Conclusion 243Acknowledgments 243References 24316 Understanding the Present and Past Climate-Human-Vegetation Dynamics in the Indian Himalaya: A Comprehensive Review 247Mehta Bulbul, Yadav Ankit, Aljasil Chirakkal, Ambili Anoop, and Praveen K. Mishra16.1 Introduction 24716.2 Study Site 24816.3 Climate Vegetation Interaction in the Indian Himalaya 24816.3.1 Present-Day Conditions 24816.3.2 The Holocene Epoch 24916.3.2.1 Western Himalaya 24916.3.2.2 Eastern Himalaya 25216.3.2.3 Central Himalaya 25316.4 Conclusions 253References 25417 Flash Flood Susceptibility Mapping of a Himalayan River Basin Using Multi-Criteria Decision-Analysis and GIS 257Pratik Dash, Kasturi Mukherjee, and Surajit Ghosh17.1 Introduction 25717.2 Study Area 25817.3 Data and Methodology 25917.3.1 Data 25917.3.2 Multicriteria Analysis 25917.3.3 Selection and Classification of Flood Predictors 25917.3.4 Flood Hazard Index 26017.3.5 Validation 26017.4 Results and Discussion 26017.4.1 Flood Controlling Factors 26017.4.2 Multicriteria Analysis 26417.4.3 Flood Susceptibility Mapping 26417.4.4 Validation 26517.5 Conclusion 266References 26618 The Role of Himalayan Frontal Thrust in the Upliftment of Kimin Formation and the Migration of Sedimentary Basin in Arunachal Himalaya, Around Bandardewa, Papumpare District, Arunachal Pradesh 268Mondip Sarma, Sajeed Zaman Borah, Devojit Bezbaruah, Tapos Kumar Goswami, and Upendra Baral18.1 Introduction 26818.2 Geology 26918.2.1 Siwaliks of Arunachal Himalaya 26918.2.2 Geology of the Study Area 26918.3 Materials and Method 27218.4 Study of Alluvial Fan 27318.4.1 Description of Lithosections 27318.4.1.1 Kimin Formation 27318.4.1.2 Terrace Deposits 27418.4.2 Grain Size Analysis 27518.4.3 Cumulative Curve 27518.4.4 Calculation of Size Parameters 27518.4.4.1 Graphic Mean 27518.4.4.2 Graphic Standard Deviations 27518.4.4.3 Graphic Skewness 27518.4.4.4 Graphic Kurtosis 27518.4.5 Inter-Relationship of Size Parameters 27518.4.6 cm Plot 27818.5 Discussion and Conclusions 279Acknowledgments 280References 28019 Himalayan River Profile Sensitivity Assessment by Validating of DEMs and Comparison of Hydrological Tools 283Rahul Devrani, Rohit Kumar, Maneesh Kuruvath, Parv Kasana, Shailendra Pundir, Manish Pandey, and Sukumar Parida19.1 Introduction 28319.2 Study Area 28419.3 Methodology (LSDTopoTools) 28419.4 Details of DEM Datasets Used 28619.4.1 Alos-palsar 28619.4.2 Aster 28619.4.3 CartoDEM 28719.4.4 Copernicus DEM 28719.4.5 Nasa Dem 28719.4.6 Srtm 28919.5 Result and Discussion 28919.5.1 Assessment of DEMs Generated Watershed Boundary and Slope 28919.5.2 Sensivity of Longitudinal River Profiles Using Different DEMs 28919.6 Conclusion 295Acknowledgments 295References 29520 Glacier Ice Thickness Estimation in Indian Himalaya Using Geophysical Methods: A Brief Review 299Aditya Mishra, Harish Chandra Nainwal, and R. Shankar20.1 Introduction 29920.2 Geophysical Methods for Estimation of Glacier Ice Thickness 30020.2.1 Gravity 30020.2.2 Magnetic 30020.2.3 Resistivity 30020.2.4 Seismic 30020.2.5 Ground Penetrating Radar 30020.3 Geophysical Methods in the Indian Himalaya Region 30020.4 GPR Surveys in the Debris Covered Glaciers 30220.5 A Case Study on Debris-Covered Satopanth Glacier 30320.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 304Acknowledgments 304References 30521 Landscapes and Paleoclimate of the Ladakh Himalaya 308Anil Kumar, Rahul Devrani, and Pradeep Srivastava21.1 Introduction 30821.2 Geology of the Ladakh Himalaya 30821.2.1 Karakoram Region 31021.3 Past Climate Variability 31021.3.1 Early Holocene (~11.7 to 8.2 ka) 31021.3.2 Mid-Holocene (~8.2–4.2 ka) 31021.3.3 Late-Holocene (~4.2 ka–Present) 31121.4 Modern Climatic and Vegetation 31121.5 Landscapes in the Ladakh Region 31221.6 Glaciation and Associated Landforms 31521.7 Flood History and Disaster 31521.8 Conclusion 316Acknowledgment 316References 31622 A Review of Remote Sensing and GIS-Based Soil Loss Models With a Comparative Study From the Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basin 321Rohit Kumar, Rahul Devrani, and Benidhar Deshmukh22.1 Introduction 32122.2 Geospatial Models 32322.2.1 USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation) 32422.2.2 RUSLE (Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation) 32422.2.2.1 Rainfall Erosivity Factor “R” 32522.2.2.2 Soil Erodibility “K” 32522.2.2.3 Slope Length and Steepness “LS” 32522.2.2.4 Crop Management (C) 32622.2.2.5 Support Practices “P” 32622.2.3 MUSLE (Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation) 32622.3 A Case Study in Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basins Using RUSLE Model 32622.3.1 Study Area (Upper and Marginal Ganga River Basins) 32622.3.2 Dataset and Methodology 32722.3.3 Rate of Soil Loss in Rishiganga Basin (RG) 32822.3.4 Rate of Soil Loss in Lower Chambal Basin (LC) 32922.4 Discussion 33122.5 Conclusion 333Acknowledgments 334References 33423 Wetlands as Potential Zones to Understand Spatiotemporal Plant-Human-Climate Interactions: A Review on Palynological Perspective from Western and Eastern Himalaya 340Sandhya Misra, Anupam Sharma, Ravi Shankar Maurya, and Krishna G. Misra23.1 Introduction 34023.2 Importance of Wetlands 34023.3 Climate of Himalaya 34123.4 Vegetation Types in the Himalayan Region 34123.5 Wetlands as Sites for Floristic Analysis 34123.6 Wetlands as Sites for Past Vegetation-Climate-Human Interaction 34223.7 Conclusions 347Acknowledgments 348References 34824 Investigation of Land Use/Land Cover Changes in Alaknanda River Basin, Himalaya During 1976–2020 351Varun Narayan Mishra24.1 Introduction 35124.2 Materials and Methods 35224.2.1 Study Area 35224.2.2 Data Used 35224.2.3 Methods 35324.2.3.1 LULC Classification Scheme 35324.2.3.2 LULC Change Investigation 35324.3 Results and Discussion 35324.3.1 LULC Status 35424.3.2 LULC Change 35424.4 Conclusions 355References 355Section IV the Arctic: the Northernmost Ocean Having the North Pole Environment and Remote Sensing 35725 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic, the Antarctic, and the Himalaya: A Synoptic View from the Cryosphere Change Perspective 359Shyam Ranjan, Manish Pandey, and Rahul Raj25.1 Introduction 35925.2 Cryosphere and Its Influence on Socio-Ecological-Economical (GLASOECO) System 36025.2.1 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on Agriculture and Livestock 36025.2.2 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on Ecosystem and Environment 36125.2.3 Cryospheric Change and Its Influence on the Economy 36225.2.4 Cryospheric Change as a Risk to Energy Security 36225.3 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic and the Antarctic Regions 36325.3.1 Hydrological Changes in the Arctic 36325.3.2 Hydrological Changes in the Antarctic 36325.4 Hydrological Changes in the Third Pole (Himalaya) 36325.4.1 Runoff Flooding 36425.4.2 Future Hydrological Change in the Third Pole 36425.5 Conclusion 365Acknowledgments 365References 36526 High-Resolution Remote Sensing for Mapping Glacier Facies in the Arctic 371Shridhar Digambar Jawak, Sagar Filipe Wankhede, Alvarinho J. Luis, and Keshava Balakrishna26.1 Introduction 37126.1.1 Glacier Facies Mapping Using Multispectral Data 37226.1.2 Image Classification 37226.1.3 Training Samples and Operator Skill 37326.1.4 The Test of Operator Influence 37326.2 The Geographical Area and Geospatial Data 37426.3 Methodology 37426.3.1 Radiometric Calibration and Digitization 37526.3.2 Operator Selections 37626.3.3 Classification and Reference Point Selection 37626.4 Results and Discussion 37626.5 Inferences and Recommendations 37826.6 Conclusion 378References 37827 Supraglacial Lake Filling Models: Examples From Greenland 381Prateek Gantayat27.1 Introduction 38127.2 Methods 38127.2.1 Supraglacial Lake FillING (SLING) 38127.2.2 Surface Routing and Lake Filling Model (SRLF) 38327.2.3 Surface Routing and Lake Filling With Channel Incision (SRLFCI) 38427.3 Study Area 38427.4 Data Used 38427.5 Results 38627.5.1 Results For SLING Model 38627.5.2 Results For SRLF Model 38727.5.3 Results For SRLFCI Model 38727.6 Discussion 38727.7 Conclusions 388Acknowledgments 388References 38828 Arctic Sea Level Change in Remote Sensing and New Generation Climate Models 390S. Chatterjee, R.P. Raj, A. Bonaduce, and R. Davy28.1 Introduction 39028.2 Remote Sensing of Arctic Ocean Sea-Level Changes 39028.3 Results and Discussion 39228.3.1 Observed Trend and Variability 39228.3.2 Arctic Ocean Sea Level and Large-Scale Atmospheric and Ocean Circulation 39228.3.3 Arctic Ocean Sea Level in CMIP6 39528.4 Conclusions 396Acknowledgments 398References 39829 Spatio-Temporal Variations of Aerosols Over the Polar Regions Based on Satellite Remote Sensing 401Rohit Srivastava29.1 Introduction 40129.2 Data and Methodology 40229.3 Results and Discussion 40329.3.1 Seasonal Variations of Relative Humidity (RH) Over Northern and Southern Polar Regions 40329.3.1.1 Arctic 40329.3.1.2 Antarctic 40329.3.2 Seasonal Variations of Winds over Northern and Southern Polar Regions 40429.3.2.1 Arctic 40429.3.2.2 Antarctic 40529.3.3 Seasonal Variations of Global Fire Activities 40529.3.4 Aerosol Variations Over the Northern and Southern Polar Region 40729.3.5 Seasonal Aerosol Variations Over the Northern and Southern Polar Regions 40729.3.5.1 Arctic 40729.3.5.2 Antarctic 40829.4 Conclusions 409Acknowledgments 410References 410Section V the Research Institutions on the “three Poles,” Data Pools, Data Sharing Policies, Career in Polar Science Research and Challenges 41330 Multi-Disciplinary Research in the Indian Antarctic Programme and Its International Relevance 415Anand K. Singh, Yogesh Ray, Shailendra Saini, Rahul Mohan, and M. Javed Beg30.1 Introduction 41530.2 India in the International Bodies for Antarctica 41530.3 Multi-Disciplinary Antarctic Research in the Last Decade 41630.4 International Relevance 41730.5 Concluding Remarks 418References 41831 Indian and International Research Coordination in the Arctic 420Archana Singh, David T. Divya, and K.P. Krishnan31.1 The Changing Arctic and Inherited Interest 42031.2 International Research Coordination 42131.3 Arctic Research Coordination at the National Level 42231.4 Coordination Among Students, Young Researchers, and Educators 424Acknowledgments 425Declaration of Competing Interest 425References 425Index 427