Sounds of Language

ELIZABETH C. ZSIGA is Professor of Linguistics at Georgetown University, where she has taught undergraduate and graduate students since 1994. Her research focuses on the sound systems of diverse languages and the intersections between phonetics and phonology. She is the author of The Phonology/Phonetics Interface and has published widely in leading scholarly journals.

• Preface xviiPreface to the Second Edition xviiiAbout the Companion Website xxPart I Articulation 11 The Vocal Tract 31.1 Seeing the Vocal Tract: Tools for Speech Research 41.2 The Parts of the Vocal Tract 7Chapter Summary 13Further Reading 13Review Exercises 14Further Analysis and Discussion 15Further Research 15Go online 15References 152 Basics of Articulation: Manner and Place in English 162.1 The Dance of the Articulators 172.2 Phonetic Transcription 18Chapter Summary 30Further Reading 31Review Exercises 31Further Research 34Go online 343 A Tour of the Consonants 353.1 “Exotic” Sounds and the Phonetic Environment 363.2 Pulmonic Consonants 393.3 Non-Pulmonic Consonants 473.4 Positional Variation in English 50Chapter Summary 53Further Reading 54Review Exercises 54Further Analysis and Discussion 55Go online 56References 564 A Map of the Vowels 584.1 The Landscape 594.2 Cardinal Vowels 604.3 Building Inventories: Dimensions of Vowel Quality 624.4 Nasality and Voice Quality 694.5 Length and Diphthongs 704.6 Tone 714.7 Positional Variants of the Vowels of English 73Chapter Summary 74Further Reading 74Review Exercises 74Further Analysis and Discussion 76Further Research 77References 775 Anatomy, Physiology, and Gestural Coordination 785.1 Anatomy and Physiology of Respiration 795.2 Anatomy and Physiology of the Larynx 815.3 Anatomy of the Tongue and Supralaryngeal Vocal Tract 875.4 Gestural Coordination 915.5 Palatography 93Chapter Summary 95Further Reading 96Review Exercises 96Further Analysis and Discussion 98Further Research 99Go online 99Part II Acoustics and Perception 1016 The Physics of Sound: Pendulums, Pebbles, and Waves 1036.1 What Is Sound? 1046.2 Simple Harmonic Motion: A Pendulum and a Tuning Fork 1066.3 Adding Sinusoids: Complex Waves 1096.4 Sound Propagation 1126.5 Decibels 1146.6 Resonance 1156.7 The Vocal Tract as a Sound-producing Device: Source-Filter Theory 118Chapter Summary 120Further Reading 120Review Exercises 120Go online 1217 Looking at Speech Waveforms, Spectra, and Spectrograms 1227.1 Pre-Digital Speech Analysis 1237.2 Digitization 1257.3 Looking at Waveforms 1327.4 Spectra 1347.5 Spectrograms 139Chapter Summary 145Further Reading 145Review Exercises 145Further Analysis and Discussion 146Further Research 149Go online 150References 1508 Speech Analysis: Under the Hood 1518.1 Building Sounds Up 1528.2 Breaking Sounds Down 162Chapter Summary 171Further Reading 172Review Exercises 172Further Analysis and Discussion 172Further Research 173Go online 173References 1739 Hearing and Speech Perception 1749.1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Ear 1759.2 Neuro-anatomy 1819.3 Speech Perception 186Chapter Summary 194Further Reading 194Review Exercises 195Further Analysis and Discussion 196Go online 196References 197Part III Segmental Phonology 19910 Phonology 1: Abstraction, Contrast, Predictability 20110.1 The Necessity of Abstraction 20210.2 Contrast and Predictability: Phonemes and Allophones 20610.3 Some Complicating Factors 21310.4 Structuralism, Behaviorism, and the Decline of Phonemic Analysis 217Chapter Summary 218Further Reading 219Review Exercises 219Further Analysis and Discussion 220Further Research 222Go online 223References 22311 Phonotactics and Alternations 22411.1 Phonotactic Constraints 22511.2 Analyzing Alternations 22811.3 Alternations: What to Expect 235Chapter Summary 248Further Reading 249Review Exercises 249Further Analysis and Discussion 251Go online 253References 25312 What Is a Possible Language? Distinctive Features 25412.1 Introduction 25512.2 Distinctive Features 25812.3 How have our Hypotheses Fared? 270Chapter Summary 272Further Reading 272Review Exercises 272Further Analysis and Discussion 273Further Research 275Go online 275References 27513 Rules and Derivations in Generative Grammar 27613.1 Generative Grammars 27713.2 Underlying Representations 27813.3 Writing Rules 28013.4 Autosegmental Representations and Feature Geometry 28913.5 How Have Our Hypotheses Fared? 303Chapter Summary 303Further Reading 304Review Exercises 304Further Analysis and Discussion 305Further Research 310Go online 31014 Constraint-based Phonology 31114.1 Constraints and Rules in Linguistic Theory 31214.2 The Basics of Optimality Theory 31514.4 Challenges and Directions for Further Research 328Chapter Summary 330Further Reading 331Review Exercises 331Go online 336References 336Part IV Suprasegmental Phonology 33715 Syllables and Prosodic Domains 33915.1 Syllables 34015.2 The Prosodic Hierarchy 350Chapter Summary 356Further Reading 357Review Exercises 35716 Stress 36316.1 What is Linguistic Stress? 36416.2 Cross-Linguistic Typology 36616.3 A Feature for Stress? 36916.4 Metrical Structure 37016.5 Stress in English 375Chapter Summary 380Further Reading 380Review Exercises 380Further Analysis and Discussion 382Further Research 384Go online 384References 38417 Tone and Intonation 38517.1 Tone 38617.2 Intonation 402Chapter Summary 407Further Reading 408Review Exercises 408Further Analysis and Discussion 409Further Research 411Go online 411References 411Part V Phonology and Morphology 41318 Word Structure and Sound Structure 41518.1 Basics of Morphology: Some Definitions and Examples 41618.2 Phonologically Sensitive Morphology 42418.3 What Is in the Lexicon? 432Chapter Summary 433Recommended Readings 434Review Exercises 435Further Analysis and Discussion 435Further Research 440Reference 44119 Lexical Phonology 44219.1 Lexical and Post-Lexical Phonology 44319.2 Properties of Lexical Phonology 44419.3 Theoretical Approaches to the Phonology/Morphology Interface 45519.4 Summary and Directions for Future Research 463Chapter Summary 464Recommended Readings 465Review Exercises 465Further Analysis and Discussion 466Further Research 468References 469Part VI Variation And Change 47120 Diachronic Change 47320.1 Languages Change 47420.2 Historical Reconstruction 47920.3 History of English 486Chapter Summary 493Further Reading 494Review Exercises 494Further Analysis and Discussion 495Further Research 498Go online 498References 49821 Sociolinguistic Variation 50021.1 Variation by Place 50221.2 Other Sources of Variation 511Chapter Summary 515Recommended Reading 516On Regional Dialects 516On Other Sources of Variation 516Review Exercises 516Further Analysis and Discussion 517Further Research 518Go online 518References 51822 Variation, Probability, and Phonological Theory 52022.1 Variation Is Ubiquitous 52122.2 Variable Rules 52522.3 Constraint-based Approaches to Phonological Variation 52722.4 Summary and Directions for Future Research 541Chapter Summary 542Suggested Reading 542Review Exercises 542Further Analysis and Discussion 543Further Research 546References 54723 Child Language Acquisition 54823.1 Language Acquisition and Language Learning 54923.2 Research Tools 54923.3 Perception in the First Year 55123.4 Child Language Production 55623.5 Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory 560Chapter Summary 564Further Reading 564Review Exercises 565Further Analysis and Discussion 566Further Research 567Go online 567References 56724 Adult Language Learning 56824.1 The Contexts of Adult Language Learning 56924.2 Research Tools 57124.3 L2 Perception 57324.4 L2 Production 57624.5 L2 Grammar Learning 57824.6 Acquisition, Learning, and Linguistic Theory 582Chapter Summary 583Further Reading 584Review Exercises 584Further Analysis and Discussion 585Further Research 586Go online 586References 587Sources of Language Data 588Index 598