Urban Geography

DAVID H. KAPLAN is Professor of Geography at Kent State University. His research interests include nationalism, borderlands, ethnic and racial segregation, urban and regional development, housing finance, and sustainable transportation. Dr. Kaplan has published 14 books and more than 70 articles and book chapters. He edits the Geographical Review and National Identities and is a former President of the American Association of Geographers. STEVEN R. HOLLOWAY is Professor of Geography and Director of Urban and Metropolitan Studies at the University of Georgia. He conducts research on a variety of urban-centered topics, including racial segregation, redlining, mortgage lending discrimination, wildfire risk, and urban heat islands. He has published numerous articles in peer-reviewed journals including Urban Geography, Applied Geography, and The Professional Geographer.

• Preface xiii1 An Introduction to the Changing Field of Urban Geography 1Why We Study Cities 1How We Study Cities 4The Field of Urban Geography 5Box 1.1 Bright Lights, Big Cities 6The Origin and Evolution of Urban Geography 8Approaches to Urban Geographic Research 9Streams of Urban Geographic Research 10Spatial Analysis 10Marxist Urban Geography and Urban Political Economy 13Critical Social Theory in Urban Geography 13Feminist Urban Geography 14Postmodern Urban Geography 14Nature and Urban Geography 15Race 15Defining Cities 16Rural–Urban Continuum 16What Is the Spatial Extent of Cities? 17Box 1.2 Micropolitan Areas 19Introduction to This Textbook 21Wrapping Up 21Readings 222 the Origins and Development of Cities 23What Are Cities? 23Preconditions to Urban Formation 25Box 2.1 Cities without Agriculture? 25Ecology, Technology, and Power 26Theories of Urban Origins 27Patterns of Early Urbanization 30Locations of Early Cities 30Diffusion of Urbanization 30Box 2.2 Uncovering Lost Cities 32Urban Evolution and Early Economic Imperatives: Traditional Cities 33The Early City- States: Sumeria 33Other Ancient Cities 36Imperial Cities 39Box 2.3 The Collective Alternative 39Cities as Engines of Economic Growth: Capitalism, Industrialism, and Urbanization 43Box 2.4 Death of a City 44The New Trading Cities 44Box 2.5 The First Ghettos 50Industrial Cities 51Box 2.6 Designing Spaces: Bastide Cities and the Grand Manner 52Wrapping Up 57Readings 573 the Evolution of the American Urban System: Origins Through Industrialization 59Urban Systems and Urban Hierarchies 59Rank- Size Rule and Primate Cities 61Mercantilism and the Development of the Colonial Urban System 63Box 3.1 America’s Anti- Urban Bias 67Box 3.2 Central Place Theory 70Economic Eras of North American Urbanization 70Economic Eras, Transportation Networks, and the Evolution of the US Urban System 72Frontier Mercantilism (1790–1830s) 74Box 3.3 The Erie Canal 76Early Industrial Capitalism and Iron Rails (1830s–1880s) 77National Industrial Capitalism and Steel Rails (1880s–1920s) 82Wrapping Up 87Readings 884 Economic Eras and the Urban System: Industrialization, Decline, and Globalization 891920s–1970s: Mature Industrial Capitalism 89Automobiles 89Box 4.1 The Interstate Highway System 92The Great Depression 93Airplanes 941970s–Present: Post- Industrial Neoliberal Capitalism 96An Urban System in Crisis 96Rise of the Service and Information Economies 101High Technology and the Creative Economy 103Globalization and the Global Urban System 104Capitalism, Power, and World Cities 105The World City Hierarchy 107The Global City 110A Network of World Cities: Global Interconnections 111The Tourist World City 111Telecommunications, Interconnectivity, and World Cities 112Dispersal or Concentration? 113Telecommunications and Financial Markets 114Telecommunications and Urban Society 114Internet Connectivity and Cloud Data Infrastructure 115Box 4.2 The Gravity Model in Local and Regional and Global Context 116Wrapping Up 118Readings 1195 Urban Land Use, the Central Business District, Gentrification, And the Growth of Suburbs 120Toward a Model of Land Use 121Urban Functions 121Model of Land Value 122The Central Business District 125Manufacturing in the Frame 127Residential Users 133Box 5.1 Health and Urban Geography: The Impact of COVID- 19 on Downtowns 135Revitalizing Downtowns 137Central Business Districts 137Box 5.2 Downtown Casinos 138America’s New Downtowns 139Revitalizing Neighborhoods: Gentrification 140Five Waves of Gentrification 142Suburban Changes 145Box 5.3 Megalopolis 148Wrapping Up 149Readings 1496 Foundations of Urban Social Landscapes 151Ecological Approach to Cities 151“Community Lost”: European Perspectives on Cities 152The Chicago School of Sociology 153Box 6.1 Rebutting the “Community Lost” Perspective 154Box 6.2 Health and Urban Geography: Chicago and the 1918 Influenza Epidemic 157Traditional Models of Urban Spatial Structure 160Burgess Concentric Zone Model 160Hoyt Sector Model 160Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model 162More Complex Models 162Social Area Analysis and Factorial Ecology 163Box 6.3 Wirth’s “Urbanism as a Way of Life” 164The Urban Mosaic 165Contemporary Urban Social Space: Globalization and Cities of Difference 165Globalization: General Trends 167Elements of the Global City 168“In Between” Neighborhoods in the Global City 170Los Angeles School Urbanism 172Cities of Difference 173Wrapping Up 176Readings 1777 Urban Housing Markets: Sprawl, Blight, and Regeneration 179Housing and Housing Markets 179Sectors of Housing Tenure 180Housing Markets: Demand 181Box 7.1 Hedonic House Price Models 181Box 7.2 NIMBY, LULUs, and YIMBY: How Homeowners React to Adjacent Land Uses 182Housing Markets: Supply 183Housing Market Geographies and Neighborhood Change 183Urban Ecology and Housing Markets: Invasion and Succession 183Filtering and Vacancy Chains 184Life‐ Cycle Notions of Neighborhood Change 186Government Involvement in Housing Markets 187Securing Home Ownership through Loan Guarantees 188The Secondary Mortgage Market: A New System of Housing Finance 189Promoting Home Ownership to Address Inequality: Promise and Peril 190Unequal Access to Housing 190Real Estate Agents and Differentiated Access 190Discrimination in Lending 194Accumulated Impacts of Housing Market Discrimination 195Box 7.3 Housing Markets and the Global Financial Crisis 196Suburban Housing and Postwar Sprawl 199Supply and Demand Factors 199Box 7.4 Health and Urban Geography: Sprawl Leads to Depression 200Sprawl and the Federal Government: Housing Finance 201Sprawl and the Federal Government: Freeways and Automobility 202“Blight” and Inner‐ City Housing 203Early Postwar Redevelopment Pressures 203The Housing Dynamics of Redevelopment 204Displacement and Public Housing 205Wrapping Up 208Readings 2088 Segregation, Race, and Urban Poverty 210Current Patterns of Racial Residential Segregation 211Census 2020 Figures 211Box 8.1 Types and Measures of Segregation 212Recent Change 215What Causes Segregation? 217Race and the North American Ghetto 219The “First” North American Ghetto 219Box 8.2 Anti- Black White Mob Violence: 1919 Red Summer and the 1921Tulsa Race Massacre 221Postwar Institutionalized Ghettos 224Poverty and the City and Beyond 231Spatial Concentration of Urban Poverty 231Consequences of Concentrated Poverty: Neighborhood Effects 233Box 8.3 Health and Urban Geography: Race, Poverty, and COVID- 19 Health 234Responding to Urban Poverty 237War on Poverty 237Retrenchment 238Wrapping Up 241Readings 2429 Immigration, Ethnicity, and Urbanism 244Definitions of Immigrants 245The Era of Immigration and US Urbanization 246The New Catholic Arrivals 247Box 9.1 Strangers From a Different Shore: Chinese and Japanese Migration to the United States 248The New European Immigration 252The Ethnic Kaleidoscope of Today 256Latino Migration and Its Impact on Cities 259Box 9.2 Ethnic Diversity Within Canadian Cities 260Mexicans 263Cubans 265Box 9.3 The Creation of Ethnic Economies 266Puerto Ricans 268Latino Influences 269New Asian Immigration 270Urban Orientation and Some Models of Asian Segregation 271Asian Indians 273Indochinese 274Koreans 276Asian Influences 277Wrapping Up 277Readings 27810 Metropolitan Governance and Fragmentation 279Urban Governance and the Growth of Services 280Expanding Urban Services 280Box 10.1 Health and Urban Geography: Public Health and the City 281Box 10.2 Street Plans in Early America 283Financing the City 285Who Governs the City? 288Stages in Urban Governance 288Power in the City 290Contemporary Fragmentation in the Metropolis 293Increasing Fragmentation 293A Positive View of Metropolitan Fragmentation 295Fiscal Disparities 296Countering the Fragmented Metropolis 298Annexations 298Metropolitan Government 301Box 10.3 Metropolitanization and Language in Montreal 302Wrapping Up 304Readings 30411 Planning the Better City 305Making the Case for Planning 306Aesthetics 306Efficiency 308Social Equity Planning 309Maintaining Property Values 311Environmental Protection 311Development of Modern Planning 313Visionaries and the Urban Ideal 313Box 11.1 Health and Urban Geography: Planning a Healthier City 314Legal Basis for Planning 318Box 11.2 Planning Rights in Other Countries 320Growth of Planning as a Profession in the United States 321Political Nature of Planning 323Comprehensive Plans and Tools of Modern Planning 325Box 11.3 The Search for Fair Share Housing in New Jersey 326Elements and Steps in Comprehensive Plan Development 327Zoning 329Problems with Zoning and Responses 332Growth Management 337Wrapping Up 338Readings 33912 Urban Transportation 341Urban Transportation and Changes in Urban Form 342The Walking City 343Horsecar and Streetcar City 344Recreational Auto Era 346Freeway Auto Era 347Transportation Policy Principles and Actors 349Principles of Transportation and Costs and Benefits 349Levels of Governance 351Transportation Behavior 354Travel Types 354Box 12.1 Health and Urban Geography: Urban Transportation in the Time of COVID 356Modes of Transportation in Commuting and Other Forms of Travel 356Box 12.2 Building a Sustainable Transportation Network 360Social Aspects of Transportation 363Access 364Box 12.3 The Long Road Home (and to Work) 366Displacement 367Wrapping Up 370Readings 37013 the Urban Environment 372Conceptual Foundations 372Urban Environmental Kuznets Curve 373City–Nature Dialectic 374Urban Political Ecology 375Realms of Urban Nature 376Water 376Box 13.1 Health and Urban Geography: Urban Political Ecology and Water in Flint, Michigan 378Urban Air 383Box 13.2 Health and Urban Geography: Canadian Wildfires and US Air Quality 384Box 13.3 Health and Urban Geography: Killer Smog 385Garbage and Solid Wastes 387Energy 390Urban Hazards and Disasters 392Flooding 393Hurricanes (Typhoons, Cyclones) 393Earthquakes 395Heat 395Wildfires 396Cities and Climate Change 398Wrapping Up 398Readings 39914 Cities in the Developed World 400European Cities 400Urbanization and the European City System 401Characteristic Features of European Cities 403Box 14.1 Stockholm’s Urban Planning 406Box 14.2 Health and Urban Geography: COVID- 19 Responses in European Cities 408Box 14.3 Postwar Urban Developments: Rome’s EUR Center and Paris’s La Defense 412Aspects of Change 417Cities in Post- Communist Europe 420Communist Urban Development 422Post- Communist Development 423Box 14.4 The Old and New City of Prague 424Cities in Japan 425Structure of Japanese Cities 426Changes in Japanese Cities 428Wrapping Up 428Readings 42915 Cities in the Less Developed and Newly Developed World 430The New Urban Majority 432How the Cities Have Grown 433Demographic Factors Involved in Urban Growth 436Box 15.1 Migration as a Household Process 438Origins of Urbanization in Less Developed Countries 439Modernization Perspective 439International Political Economy Perspective 441Characteristics of LDC Cities 447Effects of Growth 447Housing 448Box 15.2 Health and Urban Geography: Urban Health in the Developing World 450Box 15.3 Cities in the Sand: Egypt’s New Towns 454Employment Opportunities and the Informal Sector 458Wrapping Up 462Readings 46216 Regional Variations in Urban Structure and Form in the Less Developed World 464The Latin American City 465Box 16.1 The Middle Eastern City 466Box 16.2 Health and Urban Geography: China’s COVID- 19 Response 467Colonial Legacies 468Modern Latin American Cities 468Sub- Saharan African Cities 475Indigenous Influences 476European Intervention 478Box 16.3 Apartheid in Urban South Africa 478Modern African Cities 480South Asian Cities 482A Typology of South Asian Cities 483Modern Challenges 486Southeast Asian Cities 489Indigenous Influences: Sacred and Market Cities 489The Colonial City in Southeast Asia 491Modern Cities 493Wrapping Up 497Readings 497Index 499