Miriam Solomon is Professor and Chair in the Philosophy Department at Temple University, and Affiliated Professor at the Center for Bioethics, Urban Health, and Policy at the Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University. She works in the areas of philosophy of science, philosophy of medicine, epistemology, and feminist philosophy. She is the author of Social Empiricism (2001), Making Medical Knowledge (2015), and numerous articles. She is Fellow of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia.Jeremy R. Simon, MD, PhD, is an emergency physician. He is Associate Professor of Medicine at Columbia University Medical Center, an attending physician in the New York-Presbyterian Emergency Medicine residency, and a member of the Ethics Consultation Service at New York-Presbyterian/CUMC. His primary academic research is in philosophy of medicine, and he also writes on medical ethics.Harold Kincaid is Professor of Economics at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. He is the author of numerous books, book chapters, and articles in the philosophy of science. Among his many books is the most recent, Classifying Psychopathology: Mental Illness and Natural Kinds (2014).

"Medicine’s challenges often appear to be purely scientific and technical – but those who work in clinical pratice or health policy know all too well that science and technology generate as many intellectual challenges as they solve. This book, whose diverse contributors include many at the cutting edge of philosophical inquiry, illuminates and explores these complex challenges. Reassuringly, few chapters offer easy answers or quick fixes."Trisha Greenhalgh, University of Oxford, UK"Unlike its sibling discipline, medical ethics, the philosophy of medicine has long needed an anthology that surveys the field and the Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Medicine fills that need. This collection provides a comprehensive overview of the methods and subjects of this emerging and exciting academic field. I am sure that this will become the standard introduction to the philosophy of medicine."Tod Chambers, Northwestern University USA

• PART I: GENERAL CONCEPTS The concept of disease (Dominic Sisti and Arthur Caplan) Disease, illness, and sickness (Bjorn Hofmann) Health and wellbeing (Daniel Hausman) Disability and normality (Anita Silvers) Mechanisms in medicine (Phyllis Illari) Causality and causal inference in medicine (Julian Reiss) Frequency and propensity: The interpretation of probability in causal models for medicine (Donald Gillies) Reductionism in the biomedical sciences (Holly Andersen) Realism and constructivism in medicine (Jeremy R. Simon)PART II: SPECIFIC CONCEPTS Birth (Christina Schuees) Death (Steven Luper) Pain and suffering (Valerie Gray Hardcastle) Measuring placebo effects (Jeremy Howick) The concept of genetic disease (Jonathan M. Kaplan) Diagnostic categories (Annemarie Jutel) Classificatory challenges in psychopathology (Harold Kincaid) Classificatory challenges in physical disease (Mathias Brochhausen)PART III: RESEARCH MEDICINE(a) Evidence in Medicine18. The randomized controlled trial: internal and external validity (Adam La Caze)19. The hierarchy of evidence, meta-analysis, and systematic review (Robyn Bluhm)20. Statistical evidence and the reliability of medical research (Mattia Andreoletti & David Teira)21. Bayesian versus Frequentist clinical trials (Cecilia Nardini)22. Observational research (Olaf Dekkers & Jan Vandenbroucke)23. Philosophy of epidemiology (Alex Broadbent)24. Complementary/alternative medicine and the evidence requirement (Kirsten Hansen & Klemmens Kappel)b. Other Research Methods25. Models in medicine (Michael Wilde & Jon Williamson)26. Discovery in medicine (Brendan Clarke)27. Explanation in medicine (Mael Lemoine)28. The case study in medicine (Rachel Ankeny)29. Values in medical research (Kirstin Borgersen)30. Outcome measures in medicine (Leah McClimans)31. Measuring harms (Jacob Stegenga)32. Expert consensus (Miriam Solomon)PART IV: CLINICAL METHODS33. Clinical judgment (Ross Upshur & Benjamin Chin-Yee)34. Narrative medicine (Danielle Spencer)35. Medical decision making: diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis (Ashley Graham Kennedy)PART V: VARIABILITY AND DIVERSITY36. Personalized and Precision Medicine (Alex Gamma)37. Gender in Medicine (Inmaculada de Melo Martin & Kristin Intemann)38. Race in Medicine (Sean Valles)39. Atypical bodies in medical care (Ellen Feder)PART VI: PERSPECTIVES40. The biomedical model and the biopsychosocial model (Fred Gifford)41. Models of mental illness (Jacqueline Sullivan)42. Phenomenology and hermeneutics in Medicine (Havi Carel)43. Evolutionary Medicine (Michael Cournoyea)44. Philosophy of Nursing: caring, holism and the nursing role(s) (Mark Risjord)45. Contemporary Chinese medicine and its theoretical foundations (Judith Farquhar)46. Double truths and the postcolonial predicament of Chinese medicine (Eric Karchmer)47. Medicine as a commodity (Carl Elliott)

Miriam Solomon is Professor and Chair in the Philosophy Department at Temple University, and Affiliated Professor at the Center for Bioethics, Urban Health, and Policy at the Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University. She works in the areas of philosophy of science, philosophy of medicine, epistemology, and feminist philosophy. She is the author of Social Empiricism (2001), Making Medical Knowledge (2015), and numerous articles. She is Fellow of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia.Jeremy R. Simon, MD, PhD, is an emergency physician. He is Associate Professor of Medicine at Columbia University Medical Center, an attending physician in the New York-Presbyterian Emergency Medicine residency, and a member of the Ethics Consultation Service at New York-Presbyterian/CUMC. His primary academic research is in philosophy of medicine, and he also writes on medical ethics.Harold Kincaid is Professor of Economics at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. He is the author of numerous books, book chapters, and articles in the philosophy of science. Among his many books is the most recent, Classifying Psychopathology: Mental Illness and Natural Kinds (2014).

"Medicine’s challenges often appear to be purely scientific and technical – but those who work in clinical pratice or health policy know all too well that science and technology generate as many intellectual challenges as they solve. This book, whose diverse contributors include many at the cutting edge of philosophical inquiry, illuminates and explores these complex challenges. Reassuringly, few chapters offer easy answers or quick fixes."Trisha Greenhalgh, University of Oxford, UK"Unlike its sibling discipline, medical ethics, the philosophy of medicine has long needed an anthology that surveys the field and the Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Medicine fills that need. This collection provides a comprehensive overview of the methods and subjects of this emerging and exciting academic field. I am sure that this will become the standard introduction to the philosophy of medicine."Tod Chambers, Northwestern University USA

• PART I: GENERAL CONCEPTS The concept of disease (Dominic Sisti and Arthur Caplan) Disease, illness, and sickness (Bjorn Hofmann) Health and wellbeing (Daniel Hausman) Disability and normality (Anita Silvers) Mechanisms in medicine (Phyllis Illari) Causality and causal inference in medicine (Julian Reiss) Frequency and propensity: The interpretation of probability in causal models for medicine (Donald Gillies) Reductionism in the biomedical sciences (Holly Andersen) Realism and constructivism in medicine (Jeremy R. Simon)PART II: SPECIFIC CONCEPTS Birth (Christina Schuees) Death (Steven Luper) Pain and suffering (Valerie Gray Hardcastle) Measuring placebo effects (Jeremy Howick) The concept of genetic disease (Jonathan M. Kaplan) Diagnostic categories (Annemarie Jutel) Classificatory challenges in psychopathology (Harold Kincaid) Classificatory challenges in physical disease (Mathias Brochhausen)PART III: RESEARCH MEDICINE(a) Evidence in Medicine18. The randomized controlled trial: internal and external validity (Adam La Caze)19. The hierarchy of evidence, meta-analysis, and systematic review (Robyn Bluhm)20. Statistical evidence and the reliability of medical research (Mattia Andreoletti & David Teira)21. Bayesian versus Frequentist clinical trials (Cecilia Nardini)22. Observational research (Olaf Dekkers & Jan Vandenbroucke)23. Philosophy of epidemiology (Alex Broadbent)24. Complementary/alternative medicine and the evidence requirement (Kirsten Hansen & Klemmens Kappel)b. Other Research Methods25. Models in medicine (Michael Wilde & Jon Williamson)26. Discovery in medicine (Brendan Clarke)27. Explanation in medicine (Mael Lemoine)28. The case study in medicine (Rachel Ankeny)29. Values in medical research (Kirstin Borgersen)30. Outcome measures in medicine (Leah McClimans)31. Measuring harms (Jacob Stegenga)32. Expert consensus (Miriam Solomon)PART IV: CLINICAL METHODS33. Clinical judgment (Ross Upshur & Benjamin Chin-Yee)34. Narrative medicine (Danielle Spencer)35. Medical decision making: diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis (Ashley Graham Kennedy)PART V: VARIABILITY AND DIVERSITY36. Personalized and Precision Medicine (Alex Gamma)37. Gender in Medicine (Inmaculada de Melo Martin & Kristin Intemann)38. Race in Medicine (Sean Valles)39. Atypical bodies in medical care (Ellen Feder)PART VI: PERSPECTIVES40. The biomedical model and the biopsychosocial model (Fred Gifford)41. Models of mental illness (Jacqueline Sullivan)42. Phenomenology and hermeneutics in Medicine (Havi Carel)43. Evolutionary Medicine (Michael Cournoyea)44. Philosophy of Nursing: caring, holism and the nursing role(s) (Mark Risjord)45. Contemporary Chinese medicine and its theoretical foundations (Judith Farquhar)46. Double truths and the postcolonial predicament of Chinese medicine (Eric Karchmer)47. Medicine as a commodity (Carl Elliott)

Miriam Solomon is Professor and Chair in the Philosophy Department at Temple University, and Affiliated Professor at the Center for Bioethics, Urban Health, and Policy at the Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University. She works in the areas of philosophy of science, philosophy of medicine, epistemology, and feminist philosophy. She is the author of Social Empiricism (2001), Making Medical Knowledge (2015), and numerous articles. She is Fellow of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia.Jeremy R. Simon, MD, PhD, is an emergency physician. He is Associate Professor of Medicine at Columbia University Medical Center, an attending physician in the New York-Presbyterian Emergency Medicine residency, and a member of the Ethics Consultation Service at New York-Presbyterian/CUMC. His primary academic research is in philosophy of medicine, and he also writes on medical ethics.Harold Kincaid is Professor of Economics at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. He is the author of numerous books, book chapters, and articles in the philosophy of science. Among his many books is the most recent, Classifying Psychopathology: Mental Illness and Natural Kinds (2014).

"Medicine’s challenges often appear to be purely scientific and technical – but those who work in clinical pratice or health policy know all too well that science and technology generate as many intellectual challenges as they solve. This book, whose diverse contributors include many at the cutting edge of philosophical inquiry, illuminates and explores these complex challenges. Reassuringly, few chapters offer easy answers or quick fixes."Trisha Greenhalgh, University of Oxford, UK"Unlike its sibling discipline, medical ethics, the philosophy of medicine has long needed an anthology that surveys the field and the Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Medicine fills that need. This collection provides a comprehensive overview of the methods and subjects of this emerging and exciting academic field. I am sure that this will become the standard introduction to the philosophy of medicine."Tod Chambers, Northwestern University USA

• PART I: GENERAL CONCEPTS The concept of disease (Dominic Sisti and Arthur Caplan) Disease, illness, and sickness (Bjorn Hofmann) Health and wellbeing (Daniel Hausman) Disability and normality (Anita Silvers) Mechanisms in medicine (Phyllis Illari) Causality and causal inference in medicine (Julian Reiss) Frequency and propensity: The interpretation of probability in causal models for medicine (Donald Gillies) Reductionism in the biomedical sciences (Holly Andersen) Realism and constructivism in medicine (Jeremy R. Simon)PART II: SPECIFIC CONCEPTS Birth (Christina Schuees) Death (Steven Luper) Pain and suffering (Valerie Gray Hardcastle) Measuring placebo effects (Jeremy Howick) The concept of genetic disease (Jonathan M. Kaplan) Diagnostic categories (Annemarie Jutel) Classificatory challenges in psychopathology (Harold Kincaid) Classificatory challenges in physical disease (Mathias Brochhausen)PART III: RESEARCH MEDICINE(a) Evidence in Medicine18. The randomized controlled trial: internal and external validity (Adam La Caze)19. The hierarchy of evidence, meta-analysis, and systematic review (Robyn Bluhm)20. Statistical evidence and the reliability of medical research (Mattia Andreoletti & David Teira)21. Bayesian versus Frequentist clinical trials (Cecilia Nardini)22. Observational research (Olaf Dekkers & Jan Vandenbroucke)23. Philosophy of epidemiology (Alex Broadbent)24. Complementary/alternative medicine and the evidence requirement (Kirsten Hansen & Klemmens Kappel)b. Other Research Methods25. Models in medicine (Michael Wilde & Jon Williamson)26. Discovery in medicine (Brendan Clarke)27. Explanation in medicine (Mael Lemoine)28. The case study in medicine (Rachel Ankeny)29. Values in medical research (Kirstin Borgersen)30. Outcome measures in medicine (Leah McClimans)31. Measuring harms (Jacob Stegenga)32. Expert consensus (Miriam Solomon)PART IV: CLINICAL METHODS33. Clinical judgment (Ross Upshur & Benjamin Chin-Yee)34. Narrative medicine (Danielle Spencer)35. Medical decision making: diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis (Ashley Graham Kennedy)PART V: VARIABILITY AND DIVERSITY36. Personalized and Precision Medicine (Alex Gamma)37. Gender in Medicine (Inmaculada de Melo Martin & Kristin Intemann)38. Race in Medicine (Sean Valles)39. Atypical bodies in medical care (Ellen Feder)PART VI: PERSPECTIVES40. The biomedical model and the biopsychosocial model (Fred Gifford)41. Models of mental illness (Jacqueline Sullivan)42. Phenomenology and hermeneutics in Medicine (Havi Carel)43. Evolutionary Medicine (Michael Cournoyea)44. Philosophy of Nursing: caring, holism and the nursing role(s) (Mark Risjord)45. Contemporary Chinese medicine and its theoretical foundations (Judith Farquhar)46. Double truths and the postcolonial predicament of Chinese medicine (Eric Karchmer)47. Medicine as a commodity (Carl Elliott)