Tao Tang is a Professor of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing in the Department of Geosciences at Buffalo State University and The State University of New York (SUNY). Along with GIS and remote sensing, he also teaches map interpretation, physical geography, and the geography of Asia. Some of his research interests include slope form and processes, environmental modeling, and watershed management.

"Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Analysis is a comprehensive and accessible introduction to GIS at the college level. It is well-suited as a primary textbook for undergraduate courses, while also serving as a valuable resource for self-directed learners seeking to build a strong foundation in GIS.Dr. Tang effectively integrates core GIS concepts with real-world applications and hands-on tutorials, creating a balanced learning experience that is both practical and intellectually grounded. The inclusion of applied examples helps bridge theory and practice (an essential component for developing competent GIS professionals).I will admit a degree of bias in appreciating the inclusion of New York State–based examples. These case studies are a gratifying reminder of the sustained effort by the team I led in developing and maintaining the New York State GIS Clearinghouse, supported by contributions from agencies across all levels of government and sectors.The book progresses logically, beginning with foundational principles of GIS and advancing through key topics such as data processing, spatial analysis, and digital cartography. The accompanying website, which provides datasets for eleven tutorial exercises, significantly enhances the learning experience by enabling readers to apply concepts in a structured, hands-on manner.Overall, this text is a strong contribution to GIS education and a practical guide for anyone looking to understand and apply GIS in real-world contexts."—Frank Winters, Former New York State Geographic Information Officer (GIO) Chair, National States Geographic Information Council (NSGIC) Advocacy Committee Board Member, National Geospatial Collaborative (NGC)

• Preface xAcknowledgment xiAbout the Author xiiAbout the Companion Website xiiiPart I Foundations of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 11 Introduction to Analyses in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 3Concepts and Theories 3What Is an Information System? 6What Does Geography Study? 7What Is a GIS? 72 Digital Data Models Representing Geographic Information 37Concepts and Theories 37Vector Data Format 37Points 38Lines 39Polygons or Areas 39Raster Data Format 46Run-length Encoding 49Quadtree Method 50Tracing or Digitizing 52Extracting Vector Objects in Points, Lines, or Polygons from Raster Data 533D GIS Data Models or Data Format 53Triangulated Irregular Network 53Digital Elevation Models 54LiDAR Point Cloud 54Part II Fundamentals of Geographic Information Data Processing 813 Geographic Information Database and Database Management 83Concepts and Theories 83Methods of Spatial Data Input in Vector and Raster Data Formats 84Incorporating Geographic Features and Events with Their Attribute Data 88RDB, Spatial, and Structural Querying of Database 914 Geographic Information Data Gathering and Data Collections 121Concepts and Theories 121Geographic Information Primary (Original) Data Collections 121Geographic Data Collections in Natural Science and Engineering: Survey of Geospatial Data 122Geographic Data Collections in Social Sciences 130Remote Sensing as the Method of GI Data Collections 1335 Coordinate Systems, Map Projection, and Geo-referencing in GIS 171Concepts and Theories 171Modeling of the Earth 171Horizontal and Vertical Datums for Measuring and Representing GIS Data 172Geographic Coordinate System and Projected Coordinate Systems for GIS Data Referencing 172Relative Geographic Coordinate (Referencing) Systems 184Linear Referencing System 195Part III Fundamentals of Geographic Information Analysis 2176 Basic Spatial (Geographic) Analyses in Vector Data Environment 219Concepts and Theories 219Distance Calculation, Extract Spatial Data, and Create New Datasets 219Buffering Operations 224Overlay Spatial Data and Create New Datasets 226Add and Calculate Attribute Fields in Spatial Datasets 232Summarize, Calculate Statistics, and Aggregate Attributes or Features for Spatial Datasets 233Model Relationships of Spatial Objects and Features 234Discover Geographic Patterns of Spatial Objects and Features 2377 Basic Spatial Analyses in Raster Data Environment 261Concepts and Theories 261Distance Operations 262Local Raster Operations 265Neighborhood or Focal Operations 269Zonal Operations 270Global Operations 271Spatial Data (Map) Algebra 2728 Three-dimensional (3D) Spatial Analyses 305Concepts and Theories 305Urban and Regional Planning 306Part IV Advanced Concepts and Applications of Geographic Information Analysis 3479 Spatial Interpolation and Spatial Statistical Analysis 349Concepts and Theories 349Spatial Descriptive Statistics 349Spatial Inferential Statistics 357Multi-variable Spatial Statistical Analysis 36510 Network Analysis 417Concepts and Theories 417Utility or River Network Analysis 418Fully Functioning or Transportation Network Analysis 43011 Spatial (Geographic) Modeling in GIS and Issues of GIS Software Enhancement 471Concepts and Theories 471GIS Spatial Analysis and GIS Spatial Modeling 471Part V Geographic Information Presentations and Digital Mapping 50912 Digital Mapping, Map Presentations, Cartography, and Geographic Information Sharing – A Summary 511Concepts and Theories 511Principles of Symbolizing the Spatial Data on Digital Maps 512Principles of Color and Color Schemes on Digital Maps 513Attribute Data Types and Thematic Mapping in GIS 516Symbolization of Vector Data on Digital Maps 517Map Scale and Abstraction 521Index 545

Tao Tang is a Professor of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing in the Department of Geosciences at Buffalo State University and The State University of New York (SUNY). Along with GIS and remote sensing, he also teaches map interpretation, physical geography, and the geography of Asia. Some of his research interests include slope form and processes, environmental modeling, and watershed management.

"Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Analysis is a comprehensive and accessible introduction to GIS at the college level. It is well-suited as a primary textbook for undergraduate courses, while also serving as a valuable resource for self-directed learners seeking to build a strong foundation in GIS.Dr. Tang effectively integrates core GIS concepts with real-world applications and hands-on tutorials, creating a balanced learning experience that is both practical and intellectually grounded. The inclusion of applied examples helps bridge theory and practice (an essential component for developing competent GIS professionals).I will admit a degree of bias in appreciating the inclusion of New York State–based examples. These case studies are a gratifying reminder of the sustained effort by the team I led in developing and maintaining the New York State GIS Clearinghouse, supported by contributions from agencies across all levels of government and sectors.The book progresses logically, beginning with foundational principles of GIS and advancing through key topics such as data processing, spatial analysis, and digital cartography. The accompanying website, which provides datasets for eleven tutorial exercises, significantly enhances the learning experience by enabling readers to apply concepts in a structured, hands-on manner.Overall, this text is a strong contribution to GIS education and a practical guide for anyone looking to understand and apply GIS in real-world contexts."—Frank Winters, Former New York State Geographic Information Officer (GIO) Chair, National States Geographic Information Council (NSGIC) Advocacy Committee Board Member, National Geospatial Collaborative (NGC)

• Preface xAcknowledgment xiAbout the Author xiiAbout the Companion Website xiiiPart I Foundations of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 11 Introduction to Analyses in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 3Concepts and Theories 3What Is an Information System? 6What Does Geography Study? 7What Is a GIS? 72 Digital Data Models Representing Geographic Information 37Concepts and Theories 37Vector Data Format 37Points 38Lines 39Polygons or Areas 39Raster Data Format 46Run-length Encoding 49Quadtree Method 50Tracing or Digitizing 52Extracting Vector Objects in Points, Lines, or Polygons from Raster Data 533D GIS Data Models or Data Format 53Triangulated Irregular Network 53Digital Elevation Models 54LiDAR Point Cloud 54Part II Fundamentals of Geographic Information Data Processing 813 Geographic Information Database and Database Management 83Concepts and Theories 83Methods of Spatial Data Input in Vector and Raster Data Formats 84Incorporating Geographic Features and Events with Their Attribute Data 88RDB, Spatial, and Structural Querying of Database 914 Geographic Information Data Gathering and Data Collections 121Concepts and Theories 121Geographic Information Primary (Original) Data Collections 121Geographic Data Collections in Natural Science and Engineering: Survey of Geospatial Data 122Geographic Data Collections in Social Sciences 130Remote Sensing as the Method of GI Data Collections 1335 Coordinate Systems, Map Projection, and Geo-referencing in GIS 171Concepts and Theories 171Modeling of the Earth 171Horizontal and Vertical Datums for Measuring and Representing GIS Data 172Geographic Coordinate System and Projected Coordinate Systems for GIS Data Referencing 172Relative Geographic Coordinate (Referencing) Systems 184Linear Referencing System 195Part III Fundamentals of Geographic Information Analysis 2176 Basic Spatial (Geographic) Analyses in Vector Data Environment 219Concepts and Theories 219Distance Calculation, Extract Spatial Data, and Create New Datasets 219Buffering Operations 224Overlay Spatial Data and Create New Datasets 226Add and Calculate Attribute Fields in Spatial Datasets 232Summarize, Calculate Statistics, and Aggregate Attributes or Features for Spatial Datasets 233Model Relationships of Spatial Objects and Features 234Discover Geographic Patterns of Spatial Objects and Features 2377 Basic Spatial Analyses in Raster Data Environment 261Concepts and Theories 261Distance Operations 262Local Raster Operations 265Neighborhood or Focal Operations 269Zonal Operations 270Global Operations 271Spatial Data (Map) Algebra 2728 Three-dimensional (3D) Spatial Analyses 305Concepts and Theories 305Urban and Regional Planning 306Part IV Advanced Concepts and Applications of Geographic Information Analysis 3479 Spatial Interpolation and Spatial Statistical Analysis 349Concepts and Theories 349Spatial Descriptive Statistics 349Spatial Inferential Statistics 357Multi-variable Spatial Statistical Analysis 36510 Network Analysis 417Concepts and Theories 417Utility or River Network Analysis 418Fully Functioning or Transportation Network Analysis 43011 Spatial (Geographic) Modeling in GIS and Issues of GIS Software Enhancement 471Concepts and Theories 471GIS Spatial Analysis and GIS Spatial Modeling 471Part V Geographic Information Presentations and Digital Mapping 50912 Digital Mapping, Map Presentations, Cartography, and Geographic Information Sharing – A Summary 511Concepts and Theories 511Principles of Symbolizing the Spatial Data on Digital Maps 512Principles of Color and Color Schemes on Digital Maps 513Attribute Data Types and Thematic Mapping in GIS 516Symbolization of Vector Data on Digital Maps 517Map Scale and Abstraction 521Index 545

Tao Tang is a Professor of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing in the Department of Geosciences at Buffalo State University and The State University of New York (SUNY). Along with GIS and remote sensing, he also teaches map interpretation, physical geography, and the geography of Asia. Some of his research interests include slope form and processes, environmental modeling, and watershed management.

"Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Analysis is a comprehensive and accessible introduction to GIS at the college level. It is well-suited as a primary textbook for undergraduate courses, while also serving as a valuable resource for self-directed learners seeking to build a strong foundation in GIS.Dr. Tang effectively integrates core GIS concepts with real-world applications and hands-on tutorials, creating a balanced learning experience that is both practical and intellectually grounded. The inclusion of applied examples helps bridge theory and practice (an essential component for developing competent GIS professionals).I will admit a degree of bias in appreciating the inclusion of New York State–based examples. These case studies are a gratifying reminder of the sustained effort by the team I led in developing and maintaining the New York State GIS Clearinghouse, supported by contributions from agencies across all levels of government and sectors.The book progresses logically, beginning with foundational principles of GIS and advancing through key topics such as data processing, spatial analysis, and digital cartography. The accompanying website, which provides datasets for eleven tutorial exercises, significantly enhances the learning experience by enabling readers to apply concepts in a structured, hands-on manner.Overall, this text is a strong contribution to GIS education and a practical guide for anyone looking to understand and apply GIS in real-world contexts."—Frank Winters, Former New York State Geographic Information Officer (GIO) Chair, National States Geographic Information Council (NSGIC) Advocacy Committee Board Member, National Geospatial Collaborative (NGC)

• Preface xAcknowledgment xiAbout the Author xiiAbout the Companion Website xiiiPart I Foundations of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 11 Introduction to Analyses in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 3Concepts and Theories 3What Is an Information System? 6What Does Geography Study? 7What Is a GIS? 72 Digital Data Models Representing Geographic Information 37Concepts and Theories 37Vector Data Format 37Points 38Lines 39Polygons or Areas 39Raster Data Format 46Run-length Encoding 49Quadtree Method 50Tracing or Digitizing 52Extracting Vector Objects in Points, Lines, or Polygons from Raster Data 533D GIS Data Models or Data Format 53Triangulated Irregular Network 53Digital Elevation Models 54LiDAR Point Cloud 54Part II Fundamentals of Geographic Information Data Processing 813 Geographic Information Database and Database Management 83Concepts and Theories 83Methods of Spatial Data Input in Vector and Raster Data Formats 84Incorporating Geographic Features and Events with Their Attribute Data 88RDB, Spatial, and Structural Querying of Database 914 Geographic Information Data Gathering and Data Collections 121Concepts and Theories 121Geographic Information Primary (Original) Data Collections 121Geographic Data Collections in Natural Science and Engineering: Survey of Geospatial Data 122Geographic Data Collections in Social Sciences 130Remote Sensing as the Method of GI Data Collections 1335 Coordinate Systems, Map Projection, and Geo-referencing in GIS 171Concepts and Theories 171Modeling of the Earth 171Horizontal and Vertical Datums for Measuring and Representing GIS Data 172Geographic Coordinate System and Projected Coordinate Systems for GIS Data Referencing 172Relative Geographic Coordinate (Referencing) Systems 184Linear Referencing System 195Part III Fundamentals of Geographic Information Analysis 2176 Basic Spatial (Geographic) Analyses in Vector Data Environment 219Concepts and Theories 219Distance Calculation, Extract Spatial Data, and Create New Datasets 219Buffering Operations 224Overlay Spatial Data and Create New Datasets 226Add and Calculate Attribute Fields in Spatial Datasets 232Summarize, Calculate Statistics, and Aggregate Attributes or Features for Spatial Datasets 233Model Relationships of Spatial Objects and Features 234Discover Geographic Patterns of Spatial Objects and Features 2377 Basic Spatial Analyses in Raster Data Environment 261Concepts and Theories 261Distance Operations 262Local Raster Operations 265Neighborhood or Focal Operations 269Zonal Operations 270Global Operations 271Spatial Data (Map) Algebra 2728 Three-dimensional (3D) Spatial Analyses 305Concepts and Theories 305Urban and Regional Planning 306Part IV Advanced Concepts and Applications of Geographic Information Analysis 3479 Spatial Interpolation and Spatial Statistical Analysis 349Concepts and Theories 349Spatial Descriptive Statistics 349Spatial Inferential Statistics 357Multi-variable Spatial Statistical Analysis 36510 Network Analysis 417Concepts and Theories 417Utility or River Network Analysis 418Fully Functioning or Transportation Network Analysis 43011 Spatial (Geographic) Modeling in GIS and Issues of GIS Software Enhancement 471Concepts and Theories 471GIS Spatial Analysis and GIS Spatial Modeling 471Part V Geographic Information Presentations and Digital Mapping 50912 Digital Mapping, Map Presentations, Cartography, and Geographic Information Sharing – A Summary 511Concepts and Theories 511Principles of Symbolizing the Spatial Data on Digital Maps 512Principles of Color and Color Schemes on Digital Maps 513Attribute Data Types and Thematic Mapping in GIS 516Symbolization of Vector Data on Digital Maps 517Map Scale and Abstraction 521Index 545