Environmental Engineering for Pathogen Control

CHARLES N. HAAS, PhD, is the L.D. Betz Professor of Environmental Engineering and Distinguished Professor at Drexel University and a member of the National Academy of Engineering. He co-directed the USEPA/DHS Center for Advancing Microbial Risk Assessment and is a fellow in multiple societies, including the International Water Association, American Academy for the Advancement of Science, Society for Risk Analysis, Association of Environmental Engineering and Science Professors, and American Academy of Microbiology. His honors include the Dr. John Leal Award, AP Black Award, and Clarke Water Prize from the American Water Works Association. He is a Board Certified Environmental Engineering Member by eminence of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers and Scientists.

• Contents iList of Figures ixList of Tables xiv1 Introduction 11.1 Scope of Coverage 21.2 Instructor Notes 31.3 Bibliography 3I Environmental Engineering and Pathogen Basics 52 Who, How, Where 72.1 Pathogens of Concern 82.1.1 Sub-Viral Agents 92.1.2 Viruses 92.1.3 Bacteria 14Classification by Metabolic Strategy 15Other Important Characteristics 18Formal Taxonomy and Classification 192.1.4 Protozoa 222.1.5 Fungi 26Zoosporic Fungi 28Zygomycetous Fungi 28Dikarya 292.1.6 Other Agents of Concern 302.2 Portals of Entry 302.3 Venues of Concern 322.3.1 Indoor Environments 322.3.2 Outdoor Environments 342.3.3 In Vehicles 352.4 Discussion Questions and Problems 352.5 Bibliography 353 Key Paradigms of Environmental Engineering 453.1 Risk Framework 453.1.1 Problem Definition 483.1.2 Risk Assessment 48Hazard Characterization 48Dose Response Assessment 49Exposure Assessment 49Risk Characterization 503.1.3 Risk Management 513.1.4 Risk Communication 533.2 Source, Fate, Transport, Receptor 543.3 Uncertainty & Variability 573.4 Discussion Questions and Problems 603.5 Bibliography 604 Unique Features of Pathogens 634.1 Stochastic Variability and Low concentrations 634.2 Growth as well as Decay 664.3 Humans as Sources and Receptors 694.4 Dose Response 714.5 Contagiousness and Population Spread 724.6 Key Takeaways 734.7 Discussion Questions and Problems 734.8 Bibliography 745 Pathogen Sampling 775.1 Workflow 775.2 Taking the Sample 795.2.1 Wastewater 795.2.2 DrinkingWater, Other Liquids 85Backflow and Cross Connections 88Groundwater 89Rainwater Collection 90Premise (Building) Plumbing 915.2.3 RecreationalWaters 935.2.4 Air 94Ambient Air Sampling 94Passive Air Samplers 995.2.5 Dusts, Surfaces, Fomites 1005.2.6 Solids and Semisolids 1025.3 Decontamination and Biosafety 1035.4 Isolation, Concentration, and Separation 1055.5 Discussion Questions and Problems 1075.6 Bibliography 1086 How Pathogens Are Quantified 1176.1 Selection of Targets 1176.1.1 Indicator Organisms 1176.1.2 Microbial Source Tracking 1196.1.3 Direct Measurement of Pathogens . 1206.2 Count, Quantal, and Time to Response Methods 1206.2.1 Count Methods 120Statistics of Count Methods 1226.2.2 Quantal Methods 136Statistics of Quantal Methods 1386.2.3 Time to Response Methods 1416.3 Direct Microscopy 1426.3.1 Optical Microscopy 142Quantification by Optical Microscopy 1476.3.2 Electron Microscopy 1486.4 Flow Cytometry 1516.5 Culture Methods 1546.5.1 Pre-enrichment or Pre-selection 1546.5.2 Culture Media Types, Selection, Incubation 1546.5.3 Whole Organism, Organ or Cell Culture 1556.6 Molecular Methods 1586.6.1 Microbial Nucleic Acids 158Molecules of Interest 158Extraction, Separation and Concentration of Nucleic Acids 1606.6.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction Based Methods 1606.6.3 Sequencing Approaches 165Amplicon Based Sequencing 166Shotgun sequencing methods 1686.6.4 Use for Quantitative Exposure Estimation 171Relationship to Viability and Infectiousness 1716.7 Implications for Exposure 1736.8 Discussion Questions and Problems 1736.9 Bibliography 175II Quantifying Exposure 1897 Sources of Pathogens 1917.1 Generic Approach 1917.2 Human Excreta 1927.3 Exhalation 1957.4 Other Bodily Discharges 1987.5 Skin Associated Pathogens 2007.6 Our biological cohabitants 2027.6.1 Plants 2027.6.2 Pets 2037.6.3 Agricultural Animals 2057.6.4 Wild Animals 2077.7 Waste Management Practices 2107.7.1 Sanitary Landfills 2107.7.2 Biosolids Application to Land 2117.7.3 Wastewater Treatment 2137.8 Other Sources via Aerosolization of Water . 2167.9 Discussion Questions and Problems 2167.10 Bibliography 2178 Transport, Growth and Decay in the Environment 2318.1 Chapter Overview 2318.2 Taxonomy of Models . 2328.2.1 Batch and Simple Flow Systems 2348.2.2 Modeling Approaches for Complex Flow Systems 2428.3 Quantitative description of Transport 2438.3.1 Box Models 2438.3.2 Box Models with Particle Tracking 2468.3.3 Advection Reaction Processes -Eulerian-Eulerian Approach 250Brief Outline of Fluid Flow Modeling 250Contaminants in a Flowing System 2528.3.4 A Priori Estimation of Dispersion 2578.3.5 Advection Reaction Processes - Eulerian-Lagrangian Approach 2618.4 Quantitative Description of Rate Processes 2648.4.1 Physical 264Processes Unique to Air 265Generally Applicable Processes 2678.4.2 Decay 271Reaction Rate Approach 274Hazard Rate Approach 276Phenomenological and Empirical Models 278Fitting Decay Rate Models to Data 279Modulators of Decay Rates and Data Sources 2878.4.3 Growth 2928.4.4 Stochastic Treatment of Growth and Decay 2998.4.5 Predator-Prey and Other Biotic Interactions 3018.5 Quantitative Description of Other Flux Processes 3058.5.1 External Fields 305Gravitational Force 305Electrical Force 309Magnetic Force 3128.5.2 Interphase Transfer Processes 313Indoor Environments 313Outdoor Land Air Exchange 314Water Sediment Exchange 315Liquid Air Exchange 3158.6 Longer range and more complex models 3178.6.1 Atmospheric Dispersion Models 3178.6.2 Indoor Air Models 3208.6.3 Water Quality Models 3218.7 Discussion Questions and Problems 3258.8 Bibliography 326III Mitigating Exposure 3439 Characterizing Interventions 3459.1 Multiple Barriers . 3459.2 Typology of Interventions 3489.3 Quantifying Performance 3499.4 Incorporating Variability and Uncertainty 3529.5 Estimating Performance of Multiple Barriers with Variability and Uncertainty 3609.6 Discussion Questions and Problems 3669.7 Bibliography 36710 Physical Removal and Reduction 36910.1 Removal by Action of Gravitational Forces 36910.1.1 Water Applications 37010.1.2 Air Applications 37410.1.3 Cyclonic Separators 37410.2 Removal by Virtue of Size 37710.2.1 Depth Filters . 378Air Filtration . 378Water Filtration 383Depth Filter Removal Efficiency 384Depth Filter Pressure Drop 391Depth Filter Regeneration 39510.2.2 Membranes 39510.3 Removal by Virtue of Charge 39710.4 Surface Cleaning . 39810.5 Discussion Questions and Problems 40010.6 Bibliography 40111 Inactivation Fundamentals 40711.1 Disinfecting Agents 40811.1.1 Chemical Disinfectants 408Halogens 409Hydrogen Peroxide 414Ozone 415Peracetic and Other Peroxy Acids 418Ethylene Dioxide 419Organic Disinfecting Compounds 42011.1.2 Physical Disinfectants 422Heat 422Light 422Ionizing Radiation 42411.1.3 Advanced Oxidation - Combinations of Processes 42411.2 Kinetics of Disinfection 42511.2.1 General Inactivation Models 42511.2.2 Chemical Disinfection 43511.2.3 Thermal Inactivation 45111.2.4 UV and Radiation Disinfection 45711.3 Discussion Questions and Problems 47011.4 Bibliography 47112 Inactivation Applications 48312.1 Fitting Performance Models to Data 48312.1.1 Basic Count Data 48612.1.2 Basic Quantal Data 49112.1.3 Basic Continuous Data 49412.1.4 Continuous Data With Censoring 49712.1.5 Complex Models 49812.1.6 Comparing Models 50512.2 Byproducts 50912.2.1 Chlorine and Halogen Compounds 50912.2.2 Non Halogen Oxidants 51012.2.3 UV and Other Radiation Systems 51012.3 Coincidental Inactivation by Other Processes 51112.4 Applications 51112.4.1 Liquids 511Chlorine 512Ozone 516Peracetic Acid 518UV and Light 51812.4.2 Air 519Chemical Agents 520UV 52712.4.3 Solids and Semi-Solids 52812.4.4 Surface Disinfection 53012.5 Questions and Problems 53112.6 Bibliography 53313 Exposure Assessment 54313.1 Microorganism Distributions 54513.1.1 Direct Measurement 54513.1.2 From Source to Receptor Models 54613.1.3 Uncertainty of Distributions 54813.2 Medium Contact 54813.2.1 Ingestion 54813.2.2 Inhalation 54913.2.3 Fomites 55013.2.4 Miscellaneous Other Routes 55013.3 Formal Computation of Uncertainty and Variability 55113.3.1 Determining Best Distributional Forms 55113.3.2 Parametric Uncertainty of Distributional Parameters 55213.3.3 Combining Multiple Distributions 56113.3.4 Advanced Concepts 564Correlated Variables 564Copulas 568Sampling Methods 57213.4 Discussion Questions and Problems 57613.5 Bibliography 577IV Balancing and Deciding 58314 From Dose Response to Risk Characterization 58514.1 Dose Response 58514.1.1 Dose Response Models 588Generation 0 588Generation 1 Dose Response 589Generation 2 Dose Response with Modulating Factors 596Generation 3 Dose Response Models with Dynamics 599Beyond Generation 3 60214.1.2 Fitting Dose Response Models 60414.1.3 Multiple Exposures 61114.1.4 Uncertainty in Dose Response Models 61414.2 Combining with Exposure 61614.2.1 Example Risk Characterization 61614.3 Integrating to Populations 62114.4 Risk Characterization Applications 62714.5 Research Needs for Risk Assessment 62914.6 Discussion Questions and Problems 63014.7 Bibliography 63115 Balancing Interventions and Risk 64115.1 Introduction 64115.2 Implementation of Strategies 64215.3 Concept of Acceptable Risk 64415.3.1 Historical 64415.3.2 HALY, QALY, DALY Concept 645Critiques of HALY 64815.4 Balancing Interventions with Benefits 64915.4.1 Direct economic valuation 649Direct Adverse Effects 650Healthcare Costs 650Indirect Factors 651Propagation of Uncertainties 653Secondary and Indirect costs and Benefits 653Future Costs and Benefits 65315.4.2 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 65515.4.3 Formal Cost Benefit Analysis 657History 657Methodology 658Critiques 66015.4.4 Formal Multicriteria Decision Analysis 66115.5 Discussion Questions and Problems 66715.6 Bibliography 669List of Figures2.1 The Disease Triad 82.2 Various Shapes and Sizes of Pathogenic Viruses 102.3 Schematic Definition of Baltimore Virus Groups 112.4 Depiction of Poliovirus Type 3 132.5 Structure of the Encapsulated Influenza A Virus 142.6 Different Bacterial Shapes 162.7 GC Ratio of Various Bacterial Groups 212.8 Microscopic Image of Endamoeba histolytica 242.9 Microscopic Image of Giardia muris 252.10 Microscopic Image of Balantidium coli 252.11 Life Cycle of Giardia 272.12 Photomicrograph of Fungus Showing Hyphae and Spores 292.13 Chain of Infection 312.14 Time Indoors vs Outdoors based on Average U.S. Lifespan 333.1 Risk Analysis Framework 473.2 Conceptual Dose Response for a Single Exposure 493.3 Ratings of Different Risks by Experts and Members of the League of Women Voters 543.4 Source Transport Receptor Framework 563.5 Taxonomy of forms of Epistemic Uncertainty 583.6 Effect of Subdividing Populations on Distribution 594.1 Poisson Distribution for Different Values of _ 654.2 Impact of Subsampling from EnvironmentWith Few Organisms 664.3 Relative Standard Deviation based on Poisson Distribution 674.4 Effect of Overdispersion and Underspersion Relative to Poisson at Constant Mean 684.5 Exhaled Liquid Volume Produced During Certain Activities 704.6 January/February 2020 COVID-19 Cluster in Guangzhou Restaurant associated with a Lunch on January 24 725.1 ConceptualWorkflow Pipeline for Methods 785.2 Schematic of an Idealized Sewer Network 805.3 Sampling from a Sewer Maintenance Hole 825.4 SimplifiedWater Distribution System 875.5 A Simple ResidentialWell 895.6 Residential Rainwater Harvesting System 915.7 Schematic of a Residential Water System 925.8 Classification of Types of RecreationalWaters 945.9 Schematic of Impinger Used for Bioaserosol Sampling 965.10 Cascade Impoctor Sampler 985.11 Cyclone Sampler 995.12 Petri dish culture plate left on a rooftop for a period of 30 minutes, then incubated at a temperature of 25oC 1005.13 Technician Swabbing Mockup of Indoor Surface of NASA International Space Station 1015.14 Filter that has been used to sample water showing captured solid material 1056.1 Effect of Amount Cultured on Recovery 1236.2 Effect of Negative Binomial k on Probability for Fixed Mean=5 1286.3 Fermentation Tube Design of Durham 1376.4 Bacterial Growth Curve 1416.5 Relationship Between Sizes of Microorganisms and Use of Types of Microscopy. 1436.6 Parts of a Basic Optical Microscope 1446.7 Micrograph of Candida albicans with Bright Field and Phase Contrast illumination.1466.8 Hemocytometer Top View and Side View 1476.9 Hemocytometer Slide Grid 1486.10 Transmission Electron Micrograph of Adenovirus 1506.11 SEM of Vibrio vulnificus 1526.12 Structure of DNA and Nucleotides 1596.13 Basics of Conventional Quantitative PCR Calibration 1626.14 Cost of DNA Sequencing 1666.15 Simple Example Illustrating Sequence Assembly from Fragments 1707.1 Particle Size Distribution of Emitted Aerosols vs. Activity1987.2 Activated Sludge Aeration Tank 2147.3 Photograph of a Trickling Filter 2158.1 Output of Solution to Example 7-2 2388.2 Dimensionless Concentration versus Dimensionless Time for a CSTR Washout Tracer Experiment 2398.3 Output of Complete Mix Flow System with First Order Reaction and Time-Varying Inputs and Source Term 2418.4 Analogy of a Plug Flow System as a Conveyor Belt of Discrete Closed Volumes 2428.5 Schematic of TwoWell Mixed Volumes in Series 2448.6 E Curves for Multiple Well Mixed Systems in Series with Mean Residence Time=10 2458.7 Trajectories of 10 Runs for a Complete Mix Volume Initialized with 20 Particles 2488.8 Trajectories of 10 Runs for a Complete Mix Volume Initialized with 20 Particles, with Growth Rate and Internal Source 2508.9 Laminar vs Turbulent Flow 2528.10 Comparison of Axial Dispersion to Compartment in Series Model for Mean Residence Time of 1.0 and Variance Equal to Three Compartment Model . 2558.11 Dispersion of Particles from an Infector in a Room for Various Scenarios 2638.12 Types of Rate Processes Considered 2648.13 Schematic of Exponential and More Complex Decay Relationships in Closed Batch Systems 2738.14 Electron Micrograph (left) of Aggregate of Delta Variant of SARS-CoV-2 Grown on Cell Culture, and Histogram of Aggregate Size (right) 2768.15 Comparison of Different Decay Models with Similar Values for t90 and t99 2808.16 Fit of Decay Data to the Log-Normal Model 2888.17 Comparison of Gompertz vs Logistic Curves 2948.18 Model Output of Growth with Lag and Inhibitor Excretion 2988.19 Williams Birth Death Model Output 3018.20 Conceptual Model of Legionella Colonization of Biofilm on the Side of a Pipe Wall.3038.21 Force Balance on Particle Moving in Gravitational Field 3078.22 Electrical Environment of Particles Moving in a Fluid 3108.23 Microbial and Chemical Interactions in Surface Microlayer 3168.24 Production of Aerosols Immediately After Toilet Flushing, visualized using Fluorescent Dyes 3208.25 Conceptual Model of Some Processes in Modeling Fate and Transport in a Single Mixed Room 3218.26 Schematic of an Aquifer 3248.27 Processes Included in EPANET-C Model 3259.1 Swiss Cheese Model of Multiple Barriers 3469.2 Relationship Between k_ and Survival Ratio for Weibull Decay in a CSTR for Different Values of the Exponent “m” 3529.3 Schematic of Input and Output Time Series from a Process 3539.4 Cumulative Distribution Function for Giardia Data in Table 9.2 3569.5 Time Series Plot for Giardia Data from Table 9.2 3579.6 Correlation Plots and Histograms of Natural Log Transformed Giardia Concentrations for Data in Table 9.2 3589.7 Histogram of LRVs For Secondary and Tertiary Giardia Removal and Correlations.3599.8 Schematic of Three Process Cascade with Probabilistic Approach 3619.9 Logic Flow for Monte Carlo Analysis 3619.10 Scatter Plot of Points in 2 Dimensional Space Generated by Pseudorandom vs Sobol Quasirandom Algorithms 3639.11 Comparison of Simulation Standard Deviations For Mean, Median, and First Decile of the Giardia Example as a Function of Number of Monte Carlo Replications 36510.1 Types of Settling 37010.2 Rectangular Sedimentation Tank 37110.3 Cyclone Separator for Air Treatment 37510.4 Flat Air Filter Module . 37910.5 Corsi-Rosenthal Box 38110.6 Depth Versus Surface Filtration 38410.7 Mechanisms of Filtration . 38610.8 Evolution of Head Loss and Effluent Quality During Filtration 39310.9 Categorization of Membrane Types 39611.1 Classification of Chemical Disinfectants 40811.2 Combinations of Hydrogen Ion and Chloride at which [Cl2(aq)]=[HOCl] 41111.3 Idealized Chlorine Breakpoint Curve 41211.4 Structure of Trichloroisocyanuric Aci 41311.5 Structure of Peracetic Acid 41911.6 Structure of Ethylene Oxide 42011.7 Structure of Quaternary Ammonium Ion 42011.8 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 42311.9 Plots of ChickWatson Kinetics in a Batch System with no Decay 42611.10 Examples of the Hom Power Law Model with Different Parameter values 42911.11 Effect of _0 on Power Law Kinetics (k0Cn = 1) 42911.12 Comparison of Series Event, Multitarget and Hom Models 43111.13 Inactivation Curves for Two Population Mixtures of Chick-Watson and Hom-Chick-Watson 43411.14 Uniform Decay vs Biphasic Decay of a Chemical Disinfectant in a BatchWell Mixed System 43611.15 Time Course of Disinfectant Residual and Survival for the Example of Hom Inactivation with Second Order Decay Kinetics 43811.16 Illustration of a CSTR and a PFR Connected in Series in Two Different Manners. 44211.17 Idealized Conceptual Diagram of a Water Heater 45611.18 Schematic of Batch UV Collimated Beam Apparatus 46211.19 Comparison of Batch UV Systems for the Mixed versus Stratified Models at Ad = 0:5 46612.1 Flowchart for Parameter Estimation of Models 48512.2 Observed versus Predicted Colonies for Hom fit to Anotai Data 49012.3 Plot of Hom Fitted Model versus Observations 49712.4 Comparison of Predicted Hom Fit to Anotai Data Analyzed Using the Censored Regression Method 50112.5 Conceptual Subsetting of Data 50712.6 Schematic of a Vacuum Chlorinator 51212.7 Schematic of a Submerged Diffuser Downstream of a Weir 51412.8 One Type of Static Mixer Insert 51512.9 Common Geometric Configurations for Contact Tank 51712.10Schematic of Three Chamber Ozone Contactor 51812.11Upper Air UV Wall Mounted Fixture 52713.1 Fit of Sylvestre Cryptosporidium data to Inverse Gaussian Distribution 55313.2 Parameter Pairs for the Inverse Gaussian that are in the 90 Percentile Confidence Region of the Fit to Sylvestre Data 55513.3 Schematic of Simple Bootstrap Method 55513.4 Bootstrapped Parameters (1000 replicates) for Inverse Gaussian Fit to Sylvestre Data 55913.5 Pairs Plot for Bootstrapping Regression Residuals of Hom Model Fit to Data of B. subtilis Inactivation 56213.6 Scatter Plot of Five Years of Fecal and Coliform Organisms Measured at Peoria, IL.56513.7 Examples of Associations Between Random Variables with Misleading Correlations 56913.8 Beta and Gamma Correlated Random Deviates with a Spearman Correlation of 0.7 57614.1 Exponential vs. Beta-Poisson Dose-Response on Semilog and Log-Log Scales 59414.2 Deposition Fraction of Particles in Different Portions of the Human Respiratory Tract from Nasal Inhaled Exposures 59814.3 Effect of Incubation Time Distribution on the Case Distribution 60014.4 Plot of Fitted Dose Response Time Model to 2.1_ Franciscella tularensis Model 60214.5 Observed Proportion of Positives Compared to Exact Beta-Poisson Best Fit 60714.6 Effect of Dose Splitting on Approximate Beta Poisson Risk 61314.7 Schematic of Construction of Bootstrap Pseudosamples from a Dose-Response Experiment 61414.8 Bootstrap Parameters for Exact Beta-Poisson Fit to Rotavirus Data 61514.9 Distribution of Log10 Risk from 10,000 Simulations 61914.10Tornado Plot of Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients for Inputs to Rotavirus Risk Characterization from 10,000 Monte Carlo Simulations 62014.11Basic SIR ModelWith Possibility of Incomplete Immunity 62214.12Basic SEIR ModelWith Possibility of Incomplete Immunity 62214.13Environmental Mediated Infectious Disease Model. From [10], CC-By-4 License 62415.1 Hypothetical Time Course of Disability Weights for Three Circumstances 64615.2 Schematic Cost-Effectiveness Curve with a Continuum of Alternatives 65715.3 Cost Effectiveness Curve with Countervailing Risk 65815.4 Hierarchy of Criteria, Attributes and Sub-attributes 66315.5 Example Sub-Attribute Utility Functions for Cost 666List of Tables2.1 Example Pathogens in Each Baltimore Group 122.2 Viral Realms and Example Human Pathogens 132.3 Examples of Gram Negative and Gram Positive Genera with Pathogenic Bacteria. 172.4 Bacterial Phyla with no Currently Known Human Pathogens 232.5 Bacterial Phyla with Known Pathogens 232.6 Some Important Pathogenic Protozoa Genera 263.1 Attributes of Two Factors Associated with Risk Amplification or Attenuation 553.2 Stages in Risk Communication 554.1 Measurement of Influenza Virus - Infectious Particles and RNA - in Symptomatic Individuals 715.1 Some Significant Requirements of Different Biosafety Levels 1046.1 Plaque counts for Poliovirus after 4 Days of Incubation as a Function of Sample Dilution 1266.2 Data on Secondary Effluent Coliform Measured by Membrane Filter . 1356.3 Some QA/QC Considerations for Each Step in Flow of a qPCR Assay 1647.1 Bacterial, Viral, Protozoal and Helminth Pathogens in Human Excreta 1937.2 Emission Rate (nL/h) of Aerosols from Individuals Engaged in Different Activities 1957.3 Emission Rate (ng/h) of Aerosols from Individuals Engaged in Different Activities 1957.4 PCR gene copies of SARS-CoV-2 detected in respiratory aerosols of patients during different activities 1967.5 Pet Ownership Statistics in the US (2024) 2037.6 Example Pet Related Infectious Diseases 2047.7 Inventory of Major Animal Groups in Agriculture 2057.8 Fecal Output of Different Livestock 2067.9 Bacterial Pathogens in Dairy Manure 2067.10 Protozoans in Animal Fecal Samples in Sydney, Australia Watershed 2097.11 Pathogen Percent Positivity in Biosolids Receiving Various Treatments (determined by PCR) 2137.12 Partition Factors (air/water) for Microbial Groups in Biological Wastewater Treatment 2158.1 Examples of Simple Reaction Rates for Decay 2358.2 Example Reactions and Rates for a Viable to Injured to Killed Process 2368.3 Definition of Variables in Lighthart Evaporation Model 2668.4 Condition for Perikinetic and Orthokinetic Rates to be Equal at 20oC 2708.5 Common Two Parameter Survival Distributions and Hazard Functions 2778.6 Empirical Survival Functions 2798.7 Burr Type XII and III Complementary Cumulative Distributions Expressed as Survival Functions 2798.8 Schema of Decay Experiment Using Count Data Presented in “Tidy” Form 2818.9 Data for a Hypothetical Decay Experiment with Count Data 2828.10 Results of Fitting Data in Equation 8.4.2 to Candidate Survival Distributions 2848.11 AIC and BIC for Different Models Fitting Data in Equation 8.4.2 to Candidate Survival Distributions 2858.12 Upper Percentiles of the _2 Distribution 2858.13 Survival of E. coli O157:H7 in Creek Water 2868.14 Fit of Data in Table 8.13 To Candidate Decay Models 2878.15 AIC and BIC Criteria for Analysis of Concentration Decay Experiment of Eaton et al 2878.16 Generalizations of the Logistic Growth Rate Expressions 2938.17 Coefficients in Two Population Model Describing Two Population Interactions 3048.18 Isoelectric Points for Selected Minerals in Water 3128.19 Stability Classes based on Meterological Conditions[129] 3188.20 Coefficients for Atmospheric Dispersion Correlations as a Function of Stability Class 3199.1 Removal Expressions ((E = N Nin in PFR and CSTR Reactors for Different Orders of Removal 3509.2 Giardia Concentrations in a Pilot Wastewater Treatment System (#/L) in Raw,Secondary Effluent and Tertiary Effluent 3559.3 Mean and Median Concentrations of the Giardia data from Table 9.2 3559.4 Shapiro Wilk Test of Normality of Giardia LRVs 3579.5 Summary Statistics for Fit of log10 Giardia Reduction Values to Alternative Distributions 3599.6 Goodness of Fit Statistics for fit of LRVs from Data in Table 9.5 and Best Fit Parameters of the Weibull Distribution 36010.1 Geometric Ratios and Euler and Stokes Numbers for Two Common Cyclone Designs 37710.2 Particle Removal Efficiency by MERV Category 38010.3 Porosity and Ergun Equation Parameters for Some Water and Air Filter Media. 39210.4 Size Cutoffs, Pressure Drop, and Permeability of Various Membrane Types Used in Water Systems 39611.1 Inactivation Expressions for Batch Systems with First Order Demand 43711.2 Levels of Elaboration of CFD Models for Inactivation Processes 44911.3 Antoine Equation Parameters for Water Vapor Pressures 45511.4 Rates for UV Inactivation of Selected Microorganisms in Water 46111.5 Rates for UV Inactivation of Selected Microorganisms on Surfaces 46312.1 Batch Inactivation of E. coli by Free Chlorine at pH 10, 25oC 48712.2 Initial E. coli Concentrations in Anotai Experiments 48712.3 Survival of Giardia muris After Chlorination at pH 7 and 5oC 49312.4 Survival of Bacillus subtilis Spores on Paper in Presence of Gas Phase Chlorine Dioxide 49612.5 Anotai data Presented as Censored Concentration Data 49912.6 Survival of spores of Bacillus subtilis Exposed to Ozone in Water in a CSTR at 15oC and pH 8 50312.7 Comparison of Models Fit to Hibler Data on Giardia muris Inactivation 50612.8 Correlation Parameters for Number of Mixing Modules to Get to 5% Coefficient of Variation Under Turbulent Conditions 51512.9 Comparison of Textile Damage from Vaporized Hydrogen Peroxide (VHP)Exposure 52512.10 Comparison of Pathogen Reduction Processes: PSRP vs. PFRP 52913.1 qPCR Abundance of Campylobacter jejuni in Water Column at a State Park Recreational Area 54513.2 Key Chapters of the US EPA Exposure Factors Handbook 54913.3 Short Term Inhalation Rates Versus Activity Level, Individuals 6 years and older 54913.4 Oocyst Concentration in Raw Water of Utility C1 55213.5 Fit of Two Parameter Distributions to Data of Sylvestre et al 55213.6 Bootstrap Replicates for Campylobacter data 55613.7 Best Principles for Monte Carlo Methods in Risk Assessment 56313.8 Measurements of Enterococcus in Wastewater and Environmental Waters by Culture and qPCR 56714.1 Modifications of Dose Response Models for Time to Effect (_ ) 60114.2 Human Response to Rotavirus 60514.3 Model Fit and Dose-Response Parameter estimates forWard Rotavirus Data 60614.4 Test of Pooling Multiple Strains 61014.5 Dose-Response Data for Rhesus Monkey Exposure to Aerosolized Franciscella tularensis of Different Particle Sizes 61114.6 Response of Mice to Interperitoneal Injection of Yersinia pestis 61214.7 Model variables and parameters for an environmentally mediated infectious disease transmission model with dose–response and a latency period 62514.8 Selected Recreational Water QMRA Examples 62815.1 Ratio between Disability Adjusted Life Years and Infections for Selected PathogensTransmissible by Ingestion or Inhalation. Based on Data from The Netherlands. 64715.2 Value of Statistical Life by Several US Agencies 65015.3 Medical and Productivity Costs for 1993 Milwaukee Cryptosporidium Outbreak Per Case 65115.4 Estimated Costs for Cryptosporidium Outbreak in Galway, Ireland 65215.5 Weighting Factors for Criteria and Sub-attributes for Nanomaterial Risk Assessment.