Bellamkonda Pragathi, PhD, MTech, is an Associate Professor at DVR & Dr HS MIC College of Technology, Kanchikacherla, India and currently holds 6 patents. D. P. Kothari, PhD, ME, is a Director of Research and Senior Professor at S.B. Jain Institute of Technology, Management and Research, Nagpur, India. Dr. Kothari obtained his PhD in 1976 from BITS-PILANI, Rajasethan, and has been honored as an IEEE Fellow after 50 years of professional experience.

• About the Authors xvPreface xviiAcknowledgments xix1 Conventional Energy Sources 11.1 Energy Resources and Their Potential 21.1.1 Oil 21.1.2 Natural Gas 21.1.3 Coal 31.1.4 Hydropower 51.1.5 Nuclear Energy 61.2 Need for Renewable Energy Sources 101.3 Potential Renewable Energy Sources (RES) for Power Generation 121.3.1 Solar Energy 121.3.2 Wind Energy 121.3.3 Biomass Energy 131.3.4 Hydropower Plants 141.3.5 Hydropower Project Classification 141.3.6 Geothermal Energy and Its Potential in India Wave Energy 151.3.7 Wave Energy 161.3.8 Tidal Energy 161.3.9 Off-Grid Renewable Power 171.3.9.1 Approaches to Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) 181.4 Concentrating Optics 181.5 Limits on Concentration 201.6 Conclusion 21References 212 Measurement and Estimation of Solar Irradiance 232.1 Introduction 232.2 Parabolas and Paraboloids 242.2.1 Practical Factors Reducing Concentration 292.2.1.1 Specularity Error 292.2.1.2 Surface Slope Error 292.2.1.3 Shape Error 302.2.1.4 Tracking Error 302.2.1.5 Combinations of Errors 302.2.1.6 Cosine Losses and End Losses 302.2.1.7 Focal Region Flux Distributions 312.2.1.8 Prediction of Focal Region Distributions 312.2.1.9 Losses from Receivers 332.2.1.10 Radiative Losses 342.2.1.11 Convection Losses 362.2.1.12 Conduction Losses 372.2.1.13 Energy Transport and Storage 372.3 Power Cycles for Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Systems 372.3.1 Steam Turbines 372.3.2 Organic Rankine Cycles 402.3.3 Stirling Engines 402.3.4 Brayton Cycles 412.3.5 Concentrating Photovoltaics 412.3.6 Others 422.4 Energy Analysis and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 432.4.1 Heat Exchange Between Fluids 452.4.2 Optimization of Operating Temperature 452.4.3 Optimization of Aperture Size 472.4.4 Solar Multiple and Capacity Factor 492.4.5 Predicting Overall System Performance 512.4.6 Economic Analysis 552.4.7 Stochastic Modeling of CSP Systems 582.5 The Structure of the Sun 592.5.1 The Solar Irradiance Spectrum 592.5.2 Factors Affecting the Availability of Solar Energy on a Collector Surface 602.6 Radiation Instruments 612.6.1 Solar Irradiance Components 612.6.2 Instruments Used 612.6.3 Detectors for Measuring Radiation 612.6.4 Measuring Diffuse Radiation 612.7 Why Solar Energy Estimation? 622.8 Mathematical Models of Solar Irradiance 622.8.1 CPCR2 (Code for Physical Computation of Radiation, 2 Bands) Model 632.9 Diffuse and Global Energy 632.10 REST2 (Reference Evaluation of Solar Transmittance, 2 Bands) Model 642.11 Direct Energy 642.12 Diffuse and Global Energy 652.12.1 Reference Evaluation of Solar Transmittance Model 662.12.2 Estimation of Global Irradiance 662.12.3 Estimation of Diffuse Irradiance 672.13 Regression Models 672.14 Intelligent Modeling 712.15 Fuzzy Logic-Based Modeling of Solar Irradiance 722.15.1 Datasets 752.16 Artificial Neural Network for Solar Energy Estimation 802.16.1 Artificial Neuron Model 832.16.2 Normalization of Meteorological Data 882.16.3 Drawbacks of Conventional ANN 892.17 Conclusion 89References 903 Parabolic-Trough Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Systems 933.1 Introduction 933.2 Commercially Available Parabolic-Trough Collectors (PTCs) 973.2.1 Large PTCs 973.2.2 Small PTCs 1023.2.3 Receivers 1033.3 Existing Parabolic-Trough Collector (PTC) Solar Thermal Power Plants 1063.3.1 Parabolic-Trough Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Systems 1073.3.2 Design of Parabolic-Trough Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Systems 1083.3.2.1 Basic PTC Parameters 1083.3.2.2 Energy Balance in a PTC 1143.3.2.3 The Objective Function for Optimization 1153.4 Operations and Maintenance (O&M) Costs 1193.4.1 Choice of Performance Criterion 1193.4.2 Incident, Absorbed, or Delivered Energy 1193.4.3 Inclusion/Effect of Time-of-Day Pricing, Sloped Fields 1203.5 Effect of Constraints on Optimization 1203.6 Heliostat Factors 1213.6.1 Heliostat Size 1223.6.2 Focusing and Facet Canting 1223.6.3 Off-Axis Aberration 1223.6.4 Effects of Tracking Mode 1233.6.5 Effects of Heliostat Size on Heliostat Cost and Other Factors 1243.6.6 Reflectivity and Cleanliness 1243.7 Receiver Considerations: Cavity vs Flat vs Cylindrical Receivers 1253.7.1 Field Constraint 1253.7.2 Reflective, Radiative, and Thermal Loss of the Cavity 1253.7.3 Cost and Weight 1263.7.4 Effect of Allowable Flux Density on Design 1263.7.5 Emissivity vs Absorptivity vs Temperature 1273.8 Variants on the Basic Central Receiver System 1273.8.1 Beam-Down Systems 1283.8.2 Use of Compound Parabolic Concentrators 1293.8.3 Optical Beam Splitting 1293.9 Field Layout and Land Use 1303.9.1 Ease of Access for Maintenance 1313.10 Conclusion 131References 1324 Hybrid PV–CSP Systems 1354.1 Hybrid Strategies 1374.2 Noncompact Hybrid Strategies 1374.3 Compact Hybrid Strategies 1394.3.1 High-Temperature Approach 1394.3.2 Spectral Splitting 1444.3.2.1 PV One-Sun Approach 1454.3.2.2 Strategies Based on the Spectral Separation of Light 1464.3.3 Performance-Based Comparison of the Main Hybrid Strategies 1474.4 Hybrid PV–TS Systems 1484.5 Innovative Hybrid Systems 1494.5.1 Mixed Hybrid Systems 1494.5.2 Luminescent Solar Concentrators 1524.5.3 Very High-Temperature Thermal Energy Storage Coupled with Photovoltaic Conversion 1524.6 Conclusion 153References 1545 Solar Fuels 1575.1 Introduction to Solar Fuels 1575.2 Solar Cracking and Reforming of Hydrocarbons 1585.3 Indirect Heating Reactors 1605.4 Solar Reforming of Natural Gas 1625.4.1 State of the Art 1635.5 Economic Aspects 1655.6 Solar Pyrolysis and Gasification of Solid Carbonaceous Materials 1665.6.1 State of the Art 1685.6.2 Economic Aspects 1715.7 Solar Fuel Production by Thermochemical Dissociation of Water and Carbon Dioxide 1715.7.1 H 2 O and CO 2 Dissociation 1725.7.2 Liquid Fuel Production 1725.7.3 Direct H 2 O and CO 2 Thermolysis 1725.8 Thermochemical Cycles Principle 1745.9 Cycles with Volatile Oxides 1765.10 Nonvolatile Oxide Cycles 1785.11 Nonstoichiometric Oxide Cycles 1795.11.1 Ferrite-Based Cycles 1795.11.2 Ceria-Based Cycles 1805.11.3 Perovskite Structure-Based Cycles 1815.12 Solar Reactor Concepts for Cycle Implementation 1815.13 Decoupled Reactors 1835.14 Conclusion 187References 1886 Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) Systems and Applications 1916.1 Introduction 1916.1.1 Historical Summary 1916.2 Fundamental Characteristics of Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) Systems 1946.2.1 Acceptance Angle 1946.2.2 Principles of Photovoltaic Devices 1956.2.3 Maintenance 1996.2.4 Energy Payback and Recyclability 1996.3 HCPV-Specific Characteristics 2006.3.1 Two-Axis Tracking 2006.3.2 Multijunction Cells 2026.4 LCPV-Specific Characteristics 2036.5 Medium Concentration Photovoltaic Devices (MCPV) 2046.5.1 Application to the Market 2056.6 Design of Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) Systems 2076.6.1 Levelized Cost of Energy 2076.7 General System Design Goals 2096.7.1 System Granularity 2106.7.1.1 Optical Method 2106.7.1.2 Tracking Type 2106.7.1.3 Environmental Control Methodology 2126.7.1.4 Cell Administration 2126.8 Introduction: Relevance of Energy Storage for Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) 2126.8.1 Current Commercial Status of Storage Technology 2146.8.1.1 Sensible Energy Storage 2166.9 Liquid Storage Media: Two-Tank Concept 2166.10 Liquid Storage Media: Steam Accumulator 2196.11 Solid Media Storage Concepts 2216.12 Solid Media with Integrated Heat Exchanger 2216.12.1 Packed Bed 2236.12.2 Solid Particles 2236.13 Latent Heat Storage Concepts 2246.14 Phase Change Material (PCM) Concept with Extended Heat Transfer Area 2266.15 Conclusion 228References 2287 Hybridization of Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) with Fossil Fuel Power Plants 2317.1 Introduction 2317.2 Solar Hybridization Approaches 2327.3 The Role of Different Concentrators 2337.4 Process Integration and Design 2347.4.1 Economic Effect 2347.5 Hybridization Process and Arrangement 2357.6 Case Study Design 2387.7 Potential of Systems in China 2417.7.1 Integrated Solar Combined Cycle (ISCC) Power Plants 2417.8 Process Integration and Design 2427.9 Major Equipment Design 2437.10 Typical Demonstration Plant and Project 2447.10.1 Advanced Hybridization Systems 2477.11 High-Temperature Solar Air Preheating 2477.12 Solar Thermochemical Hybridization Plant 2477.12.1 Case Study of Medium Temperature Thermochemical Hybridization 2487.13 Conclusion 249References 2498 Grid Integration of PV Systems 2518.1 Introduction 2518.2 Grid-Connected PV Power Systems 2518.3 Inverter Control Algorithms 2548.4 Synchronous Reference Frame-Based Current Controller 2558.5 Digital PI-Based Current Controller 2568.6 Adaptive Notch Filter-Based Grid Synchronization Approach 2568.7 Modeling, Simulation, and Hardware Implementation of Controllers 2578.8 Conclusion 263References 2649 Optimization of Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Plant Designs Through Integrated Techno-Economic Modeling 2679.1 Introduction 2679.2 The Most Recent Advancements in CSP Plant Design and Simulation 2679.2.1 Calculating Energy Yield 2679.3 Economic Simulation 2699.4 Solar Thermal Power Plant Design Procedure 2699.5 Multivariable Optimization of Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Plants 2719.6 Overview of Optimization Methods 2759.7 Case Study Definition: Optimization of a Parabolic Trough Power Plant with Molten Salt Storage 2769.7.1 Definition of Optimization Task 2769.8 Applied Energetic and Economic Plant Models 2789.8.1 Energetic Plant Model 2789.8.2 Economic Plant Model 2799.9 Conclusion 280References 281Index 283