Petroleum Geoscience

JON G. GLUYAS is Ørsted/Ikon Chair in Geoenergy, Carbon Capture and Storage in the Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, UK, and Executive Director of Durham Energy Institute.RICHARD E. SWARBRICK is Honorary Professor in the Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, UK.

• Preface to Second Edition xvPreface to First Edition xviiAcknowledgments xix1 Introduction 11.1 The Aim and Format of the Book 11.2 Background 11.3 What Is in this Book 21.4 What Is Not in this Book 21.5 Key Terms and Concepts 31.5.1 Petroleum 31.5.2 The Source 31.5.3 The Seal 41.5.4 The Trap 41.5.5 The Reservoir 41.5.6 The Timing of Petroleum Migration 41.5.7 Porous Rock and Porosity 51.5.8 Permeable Rock and Permeability 51.5.9 Relative Permeability 51.5.10 Net to Gross and Net Pay 51.5.11 Water Saturation 51.5.12 Formation Volume Factor 51.5.13 The Gas to Oil Ratio 61.5.14 Timescales 61.5.15 The Units Used in this Book 61.6 The Chemistry of Petroleum 61.6.1 Alkanes (Paraffins) 91.6.2 Naphthenes (Cycloalkenes) 101.6.3 Aromatics 111.6.4 Asphaltenes 111.7 Geoscience and the Value Chain 121.7.1 Exploration (Chapters 3 and 4) 121.7.2 Appraisal (see Chapter 5) 131.7.3 Development (see Chapter 6) 131.7.4 Production (see Chapter 6) 141.7.5 Reserves Additions and Reserves Growth (see Chapter 6) 141.7.6 Field Abandonment and Reactivation (see Chapter 6) 141.7.7 Gas Storage (see Chapter 7) 151.7.8 Unconventional Petroleum (see Chapter 7) 151.8 Geoscience Activity 151.9 Oil, Gas, and Geoscientists – A Global Resource! 16Further Reading 192 Tools 212.1 Introduction 212.2 Satellite Images and Other Remote Sensing Data 212.2.1 Introduction 212.2.2 Satellite Images 212.2.3 Gravimetric Data 222.2.4 Magnetic Data 242.2.5 Electromagnetic Surveys 252.3 Seismic Data 252.3.1 Introduction 252.3.2 The Seismic Method 272.3.3 Seismic Acquisition 292.3.3.1 Land 292.3.3.2 Water 292.3.3.3 Collection of Seismic Data: Receivers 302.3.4 Seismic Processing 302.3.5 Seismic Interpretation 302.4 Wireline Log Data 322.4.1 Introduction 322.4.2 Rock Tools 322.4.3 Seismic Enhancement 352.4.4 Porosity and Permeability Tools 372.4.5 Fluid Tools 402.4.6 Pressure Tool 422.5 Core and Cuttings 432.5.1 Introduction 432.5.2 Conventional Core Analysis (Porosity and Permeability) 452.5.2.1 Sample Acquisition 452.5.2.2 Sample Cleaning 452.5.2.3 Sample Drying 452.5.2.4 Porosity Measurements 472.5.2.5 Permeability Measurements 472.5.3 Core Logging 492.5.4 Petrography 492.5.4.1 Provenance 492.5.4.2 The Depositional Environment 512.5.4.3 Reservoir Quality 512.5.5 Geochemistry 522.5.6 Biostratigraphy 522.5.6.1 Sampling 532.5.6.2 Correlation 532.5.6.3 Age Dating 532.5.6.4 The Depositional Environment 532.6 Fluid Samples From Wells 542.6.1 Introduction 542.6.2 The Sampling of Fluids 542.6.3 Petroleum 552.6.3.1 Gas Chromatography and Gas Chromatography (GC) Fingerprinting 552.6.3.2 Molecular Maturity 562.6.3.3 Rhenium–Osmium Dating 562.6.4 Water 562.7 Outcrop Data 572.7.1 Introduction 572.7.2 Maps 572.7.3 Reservoir Analogs 592.7.4 Rock Sampling and Analysis 592.8 Seepage of Petroleum 60Further Reading 613 Frontier Exploration 633.1 Introduction 633.2 Acquisition of Acreage 663.2.1 Early Access to Acreage 663.2.2 The Licensing Process 673.2.3 License Areas 683.2.4 Farm-Ins, Farm-Outs, and Other Deals 693.3 Direct Petroleum Indicators 693.3.1 Introduction 693.3.2 Petroleum Leakage and Seepage 693.3.2.1 Seal Failure 703.3.2.2 Tertiary Migration 713.3.2.3 Dissipation in the Near Surface 723.3.3 The Identification of Petroleum on Seismic Data 723.4 Basin Types 763.4.1 Introduction 763.4.2 Extensional Basins, Generated by Divergent Plate Motion 783.4.2.1 Intracratonic Basins: Sags 783.4.2.2 Rift Basins 783.4.2.3 Passive Margins 793.4.3 Basins Generated During Convergent Plate Motion 823.4.3.1 Arc Systems 833.4.3.2 Foreland Basins 833.4.4 Strike-Slip Basins 843.5 Basin Histories 843.5.1 Introduction 843.5.2 Subsidence 853.5.3 Sediment Supply 883.5.4 Burial History 893.5.5 Thermal History 913.5.6 Uplift 923.5.7 Pressure History 933.5.8 Integrated Basin Modeling 953.6 Stratigraphy 963.6.1 Introduction 963.6.2 Chronostratigraphy 973.6.3 Biostratigraphy 973.6.4 Lithostratigraphy 1003.6.5 Seismic Stratigraphy 1023.6.5.1 Rift Basins 1043.6.5.2 Passive Margins 1043.6.5.3 Foreland Basins 1053.6.5.4 Wrench Systems 1053.6.6 Sequence Stratigraphy 1063.6.7 Chemostratigraphy and Magnetostratigraphy 1113.6.8 Stratigraphic Tests 1113.7 Source Rock 1123.7.1 Introduction 1123.7.2 The Origin of Petroleum from Living Organisms 1123.7.2.1 Organic Matter 1123.7.2.2 Preservation of Organic Matter 1123.7.3 Kerogen 1143.7.3.1 Kerogen Type 1143.7.3.2 The Quantity and Quality of Kerogen 1153.7.4 Maturation of Source Rocks: Kerogen to Oil to Gas 1163.7.4.1 Temperature 1163.7.4.2 The Kinetics of Hydrocarbon Generation 1163.7.4.3 Reaction Products 1173.7.4.4 Maturation in the Reservoir 1173.7.4.5 Bitumen and Tar Mats 1173.8 Jubilee Field, Ghana, West Africa 1193.8.1 Introduction 1193.8.2 Basin Setting 1203.8.3 Pre-Drill Assessment 1203.8.4 Jubilee Field 1213.8.5 Implications for West African and South American Margins 1223.9 Johan Sverdrup Oilfield, Norwegian North Sea 1223.9.1 Introduction 1223.9.2 Location 1223.9.3 Early Exploration History 1233.9.4 Renewed Interest 1233.9.5 Major Discovery 1253.9.6 Petroleum Geology 1253.9.7 Learning 126Further Reading 1274 Exploration and Exploitation 1294.1 Introduction 1294.2 The Seal 1294.2.1 Introduction 1294.2.2 The Membrane Seal 1304.2.3 The Hydraulic Seal 1314.2.4 Faults 1324.2.5 Trap Fill 1334.2.6 The Pressure Seal 1344.3 The Reservoir 1354.3.1 Introduction 1354.3.2 Intrinsic Properties 1364.3.2.1 Net to Gross 1364.3.2.2 Porosity 1374.3.2.3 Permeability 1394.3.2.4 Water, Oil, and Gas Saturation 1394.3.3 Reservoir Lithologies 1404.3.4 The Reservoir: Sandstone Depositional Systems 1434.3.4.1 Alluvial Fans 1434.3.4.2 Aeolian Dunes 1444.3.4.3 Lakes 1454.3.4.4 Fluvial Systems 1454.3.4.5 Deltas 1484.3.4.6 Shallow-Marine Systems 1484.3.4.7 Submarine Fans 1504.3.5 The Reservoir: Limestone and Dolomite 1514.3.5.1 Shelfal and Ramp Carbonates 1524.3.5.2 Reefs 1524.3.5.3 Deep-Water Carbonates 1544.3.5.4 Dolomite 1544.3.5.5 Karst 1554.3.6 Fractured Reservoirs 1564.4 Migration 1574.4.1 Introduction 1574.4.2 Primary Migration 1584.4.3 Secondary Migration 1614.4.4 Tertiary Migration 1674.5 The Trap 1684.5.1 Introduction 1684.5.2 Migration and Trap Formation 1734.5.3 Structural Traps 1734.5.3.1 Traps Formed by Compressive Tectonic Processes 1734.5.3.2 Traps Formed by Extensional Tectonic Processes 1754.5.3.3 Traps Formed by Diapiric Processes 1764.5.3.4 Traps Formed by Compactional Processes 1824.5.3.5 Traps Formed by Gravity Processes 1834.5.4 Stratigraphic Traps 1854.5.4.1 Traps Formed by Depositional Pinchout 1854.5.4.2 Traps Formed by Unconformities 1864.5.4.3 Traps Formed by Diagenetic Processes 1904.5.5 Hydrodynamic Traps 1914.6 Play and Play Fairway 1934.6.1 Play 1934.6.2 Play Fairway 1934.7 Lead and Prospect 1954.7.1 Introduction 1954.7.2 Lead, Prospect, and Prospect Evaluation 1954.7.3 The Prospect Inventory 1984.7.4 Well Prognosis 1984.7.5 Failure Analysis 1994.8 Yet to Find 1994.8.1 Introduction 1994.8.2 Areal Richness and Prospect Summation 2004.8.3 Pool Size Distribution 2014.8.4 Creaming Curves and Destruction of Value 2034.9 Risk and Uncertainty 2044.9.1 Introduction 2044.9.2 Risk 2054.9.3 Uncertainty 2074.10 Thunder Horse Field, Gulf of Mexico, USA 2084.10.1 Introduction 2084.10.2 Geology 2094.10.3 Deep Water Subsalt Exploration 2114.10.4 Discovery, Appraisal, and Field Start-Up 2124.11 Clyde Field, UK North Sea 2134.11.1 Introduction 2134.11.2 Great Expectations 2144.11.3 Reality Dawns 2144.11.4 A Change of Owner 215Further Reading 2175 Appraisal 2195.1 Introduction 2195.2 The Trap Envelope 2215.2.1 Depth Conversion 2215.2.2 Mapping Surfaces and Faults 2235.2.3 Spill Points 2285.3 Fluid Distribution and Contacts 2305.3.1 Fluid Contacts and Transition Zones 2305.3.2 Intra-Field Variations in Petroleum Composition 2335.3.3 Intra-Field Variations in Water Composition 2375.4 Field Segmentation 2385.4.1 Introduction 2385.4.2 Barriers to Lateral Flow 2385.4.3 Barriers to Vertical Flow 2415.4.4 Identification of Flow Barriers 2415.5 Reservoir Property Distribution 2435.5.1 Introduction 2435.5.2 Lithofacies and Lithotypes 2435.5.3 Reservoir Body Geometry 2455.5.4 Reservoir Correlation 2475.6 Reservoir Quality 2495.6.1 Introduction 2495.6.2 More Intrinsic Reservoir Properties 2495.6.2.1 Relative Permeability 2505.6.2.2 Wettability 2525.6.2.3 Resistivity, Cementation, and Tortuosity Factors 2525.6.3 Controls on Reservoir Quality 2525.6.4 Compaction and Cementation in Sandstones 2535.6.4.1 Sand Compaction 2535.6.4.2 Sand Cementation 2545.6.5 Compaction and Cementation in Limestones 2575.6.5.1 Near-Surface Processes 2575.6.5.2 Compaction and Burial Processes 2625.7 Reservoir Description from Seismic Data 2635.7.1 Introduction 2635.7.2 Lithology Description 2645.7.3 Porosity Determination 2655.7.4 Lateral Variations and Reservoir Heterogeneity 2655.7.5 Reservoir Correlation 2675.7.6 Identification of Fluid Type and Contacts 2685.8 Petroleum in Place, Reservoir Models, and Reserves 2685.8.1 Introduction 2685.8.2 Petroleum in Place 2685.8.3 Geologic Models 2695.8.4 Reservoir Models 2745.8.5 Reserves 2755.9 Kadanwari Field, Pakistan 2775.9.1 Introduction 2775.9.2 Re-Evaluation of Seismic Data over Kadanwari 2805.10 Pedernales Field, Venezuela 2815.10.1 Introduction 2815.10.2 Geology of the Area 2815.10.3 History of Exploration and Production 2835.10.4 Field Reactivation, 1990s 285Further Reading 2876 Development and Production 2896.1 Introduction 2896.2 Well Planning and Execution 2906.2.1 Facilities Location and Well Numbers 2906.2.2 Well Geometries 2946.2.3 Well Types 2986.2.4 Drilling Hazards 2986.2.5 Well Completion and Stimulation 3006.2.6 Formation Damage 3006.2.7 Well Logging and Testing 3036.3 Reservoir Management 3076.3.1 Reservoir Description from Production Data 3076.3.2 Reservoir Visualization 3096.3.3 Time-Lapse Seismic 3126.3.4 Managing Decline and Abandonment 3156.4 Reserves Revisions, Additions, and Field Reactivation 3166.4.1 Introduction 3166.4.2 Reserves Revisions 3166.4.3 Reserves Additions 3176.4.4 Field Rehabilitation and Reactivation 318Case Histories 3196.5 Thistle Field, North Sea – Improving Late Field Life Oil Production 3196.5.1 Introduction 3196.5.2 Field Production Profiles 3206.5.3 Water Cut and Ultimate Oil Recovery 3216.5.4 Voidage Replacement, Pressure Maintenance, and Sweep 3236.5.5 Conclusions 3256.6 Ardmore Field, UKCS 3266.6.1 Introduction 3266.6.2 Location and History 3266.6.3 Structure and Stratigraphy 3276.6.3.1 Devonian 3276.6.3.2 Permian – Rotliegend and Zechstein 3276.6.3.3 Upper Jurassic Humber Group 3296.6.3.4 Upper Cretaceous – Paleocene Chalk Group 3296.6.3.5 Paleocene/Eocene – Recent Stronsay, Westray, and Nordland Groups 3306.6.4 Reservoirs 3306.6.4.1 Upper Devonian 3306.6.4.2 Rotliegend 3306.6.4.3 Zechstein 3316.6.4.4 Upper Jurassic 3316.6.5 Source 3316.6.6 STOIIP and Reserves 3316.6.7 Argyll Production 3326.6.8 Ardmore Development and Production 3326.6.9 Conclusions 3356.6.10 Postscript 335Further Reading 3357 Unconventional Petroleum, Gas Storage, Carbon Storage, and Secondary Products 3377.1 Introduction 3377.1.1 Unconventional Gas 3377.1.2 Unconventional Oil 3397.1.3 Gas Storage 3407.2 Unconventional Gas 3407.2.1 Tight Gas Reservoirs 3407.2.2 Shale Gas 3427.2.3 Low Saturation Gas 3467.2.4 Shallow Gas 3477.2.5 Basin-Center Gas 3487.2.6 Gas Hydrates 3497.2.7 Coal Bed Methane 3507.2.8 Coal Mine Methane 3517.3 Unconventional Oil 3517.3.1 Heavy Oil and Tar Sand 3517.3.2 Shale Oil and Oil Shale 3527.4 Underground Coal Gasification 3547.5 Gas Storage 3567.6 Carbon Storage 3577.7 Heat, Helium, and Other Secondary Products 3607.7.1 Heat Recovery 3607.7.2 Lithium and Other Solutes 3627.7.3 Helium 3637.8 Dunlin Field, UK North Sea, Opportunities for Power Generation from Unconventional Gas and/or Co-Produced Water 3647.8.1 Introduction 3647.8.2 Deep (Shale) Gas 3667.8.3 Shallow Gas 3667.8.4 Co-Produced Hot Water 3677.9 Clipper South Field, UK North Sea – Development of a Tight Gas Field 3717.9.1 Introduction 3717.9.2 Re-Evaluation of the Field 3717.9.3 Analysis of Well Test Data 372References 375Index 401