CHRIS ROGERS is a visiting professor of linguistics at Brigham Young University. He has served as Director of the Center for American Indian Languages at the University of Utah and has conducted extensive linguistic fieldwork in Mexico, Guatemala, Argentina, Peru, Brazil, and Venezuela.This book is a part of the Recovering Languages and Literacies of the Americas publication initiative, funded by a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

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• LIST OF FIGURESLIST OF TABLESACKNOWLEDGMENTSLIST OF ABBREVIATIONSCHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE LANGUAGES AND THEIR SPEAKERS 1.1. THE XINKAN LINGUISTIC CONTEXT1.2. PAST WORK WITH THE XINKAN LANGUAGES1.3. THE XINKAN SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT1.4. ORGANIZATION OF THE GRAMMAR 1.4.1. Description of data sourcesPART I. THE USE OF THE XINKAN LANGUAGES: SYNCHRONIC GRAMMAR CHAPTER 2. PHONOLOGY 2.1. VOWELS 2.1.1. Vowel length2.1.2. Vowel Harmony2.2. CONSONANTS 2.2.1. GuazacapÁn2.2.2. Chiquimulilla2.2.3. Jumaytepeque2.2.4. Yupiltepeque2.2.5. Consonant distribution2.3. PHONOLOGICAL ALTERNATIONS 2.3.1. Glottalization2.3.2. Voicing of stop following a nasal2.3.3. Nasal assimilation2.3.4. Lenition to [h]2.3.5. Vowel raising2.3.6. Glottal-stop epenthesis2.3.7. Consonant dissimilation2.3.8. Guazacapan Consonant deletion2.4. SYLLABLE STRUCTURE2.5. STRESS2.6. ORTHOGRAPHYCHAPTER 3. MORPHOLOGY 3.1. NOUNS 3.1.1. Possession3.1.2. Number3.1.3. Diminutive constructions3.2. ADJECTIVES 3.2.1. Adjectives as modifiers of nouns3.2.2. Adjectives modified by ki ‘very’3.2.3. Comparative and Superlative Constructions3.3. DETERMINERS 3.3.1. Articles3.3.2. Demonstratives3.3.3. Quantifiers3.4. NOUN PHRASES3.5. PRONOUNS 3.5.1. Independent personal pronouns3.5.2. Dependent pronouns3.6. VERBS 3.6.1. Verb classes and transitivity3.6.2. Subject agreement3.6.3. Grammatical aspect3.6.4. Imperative form3.6.5. Constrastive construction in GuazacpÁn3.6.6. Tense3.6.7. Grammatical Voice3.6.8. Mood and modality3.7. RELATIONAL NOUNS3.8. VERBAL PARTICLES 3.8.1. p’e/p’eh directional3.8.2. wa optative3.8.3. Negative imperative particle in GuazacapÁn3.8.4. Verbs borrowed from Spanish3.9. NOMINAL PARTICLES 3.9.1. kumu ‘as’3.9.2. ti’i- / t’i- direct object3.9.3. ‘i- reflexive in GuazacapÁn3.9.4. ki’3.9.5. kiki-/kih3.10. QUESTION WORDS3.11. CONJUNCTIONS3.12. DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY 3.12.1. Noun derivations3.12.2. Adjective derivations3.12.3. Verbal derivationCHAPTER 4. SYNTAX 4.1. SYNTACTIC ALIGNMENT 4.1.1. Grammatical relations4.1.2. Semantic relations4.1.3. Antipassive and verb agreement4.2. SIMPLE SENTENCE FORMATION 4.2.1. Sentences with verbs4.2.2. Copular sentences4.3. QUESTION FORMATION 4.3.1. Yes/no questions4.3.2. Content questions (wh-questions)4.4. PREPOSING4.5. NEGATION4.6. COMPLEX SENTENCE FORMATION 4.6.1. Conjoined clauses4.6.2. Serial verb constructions4.6.3. Relative clauses4.6.4. Complement clauses4.6.5. Adverbial clauses4.6.6. Conditional clausesCHAPTER 5. TEXT 5.1. NA MULHA UYPART II THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE XINKAN LANGUAGES: DIACHRONIC GRAMMAR CHAPTER 6. HISTORICAL PHONOLOGY 6.1. INTRODUCTION6.2. COMMENTARY ON THE RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-XINKAN6.3. PROTO-XINKAN PHONOLOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION 6.3.1Consonants6.3.2. Vowel changes6.4. SUMMARY OF SOUND CHANGES6.5. SUBGROUPING6.6. CONCLUSIONCHAPTER 7. HISTORICAL MORPHOLOGY 7.1. PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL AFFIXES 7.1.1. Pronouns7.1.2. Pronominal affixes7.2. BOUND MORPHOLOGYCHAPTER 8. HISTORICAL SYNTAX 8.1OVERVIEW OF SYNTACTIC RECONSTRUCTION8.2. XINKAN SYNTACTIC RECONSTRUCTION 8.2.1. Syntactic alignment8.2.2. Verb classes8.2.3. Word order8.2.4. Nominal syntax reconstructionCHAPTER 9. LOOKING FORWARDAPPENDIXREGULAR VERB CONJUGATIONIRREGULAR VERB CONJUGATIONBIBLIOGRAPHYTYPOLOGICAL INDEXTOPICAL INDEXNOTES

CHRIS ROGERS is a visiting professor of linguistics at Brigham Young University. He has served as Director of the Center for American Indian Languages at the University of Utah and has conducted extensive linguistic fieldwork in Mexico, Guatemala, Argentina, Peru, Brazil, and Venezuela.This book is a part of the Recovering Languages and Literacies of the Americas publication initiative, funded by a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

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• LIST OF FIGURESLIST OF TABLESACKNOWLEDGMENTSLIST OF ABBREVIATIONSCHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE LANGUAGES AND THEIR SPEAKERS 1.1. THE XINKAN LINGUISTIC CONTEXT1.2. PAST WORK WITH THE XINKAN LANGUAGES1.3. THE XINKAN SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT1.4. ORGANIZATION OF THE GRAMMAR 1.4.1. Description of data sourcesPART I. THE USE OF THE XINKAN LANGUAGES: SYNCHRONIC GRAMMAR CHAPTER 2. PHONOLOGY 2.1. VOWELS 2.1.1. Vowel length2.1.2. Vowel Harmony2.2. CONSONANTS 2.2.1. GuazacapÁn2.2.2. Chiquimulilla2.2.3. Jumaytepeque2.2.4. Yupiltepeque2.2.5. Consonant distribution2.3. PHONOLOGICAL ALTERNATIONS 2.3.1. Glottalization2.3.2. Voicing of stop following a nasal2.3.3. Nasal assimilation2.3.4. Lenition to [h]2.3.5. Vowel raising2.3.6. Glottal-stop epenthesis2.3.7. Consonant dissimilation2.3.8. Guazacapan Consonant deletion2.4. SYLLABLE STRUCTURE2.5. STRESS2.6. ORTHOGRAPHYCHAPTER 3. MORPHOLOGY 3.1. NOUNS 3.1.1. Possession3.1.2. Number3.1.3. Diminutive constructions3.2. ADJECTIVES 3.2.1. Adjectives as modifiers of nouns3.2.2. Adjectives modified by ki ‘very’3.2.3. Comparative and Superlative Constructions3.3. DETERMINERS 3.3.1. Articles3.3.2. Demonstratives3.3.3. Quantifiers3.4. NOUN PHRASES3.5. PRONOUNS 3.5.1. Independent personal pronouns3.5.2. Dependent pronouns3.6. VERBS 3.6.1. Verb classes and transitivity3.6.2. Subject agreement3.6.3. Grammatical aspect3.6.4. Imperative form3.6.5. Constrastive construction in GuazacpÁn3.6.6. Tense3.6.7. Grammatical Voice3.6.8. Mood and modality3.7. RELATIONAL NOUNS3.8. VERBAL PARTICLES 3.8.1. p’e/p’eh directional3.8.2. wa optative3.8.3. Negative imperative particle in GuazacapÁn3.8.4. Verbs borrowed from Spanish3.9. NOMINAL PARTICLES 3.9.1. kumu ‘as’3.9.2. ti’i- / t’i- direct object3.9.3. ‘i- reflexive in GuazacapÁn3.9.4. ki’3.9.5. kiki-/kih3.10. QUESTION WORDS3.11. CONJUNCTIONS3.12. DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY 3.12.1. Noun derivations3.12.2. Adjective derivations3.12.3. Verbal derivationCHAPTER 4. SYNTAX 4.1. SYNTACTIC ALIGNMENT 4.1.1. Grammatical relations4.1.2. Semantic relations4.1.3. Antipassive and verb agreement4.2. SIMPLE SENTENCE FORMATION 4.2.1. Sentences with verbs4.2.2. Copular sentences4.3. QUESTION FORMATION 4.3.1. Yes/no questions4.3.2. Content questions (wh-questions)4.4. PREPOSING4.5. NEGATION4.6. COMPLEX SENTENCE FORMATION 4.6.1. Conjoined clauses4.6.2. Serial verb constructions4.6.3. Relative clauses4.6.4. Complement clauses4.6.5. Adverbial clauses4.6.6. Conditional clausesCHAPTER 5. TEXT 5.1. NA MULHA UYPART II THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE XINKAN LANGUAGES: DIACHRONIC GRAMMAR CHAPTER 6. HISTORICAL PHONOLOGY 6.1. INTRODUCTION6.2. COMMENTARY ON THE RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-XINKAN6.3. PROTO-XINKAN PHONOLOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION 6.3.1Consonants6.3.2. Vowel changes6.4. SUMMARY OF SOUND CHANGES6.5. SUBGROUPING6.6. CONCLUSIONCHAPTER 7. HISTORICAL MORPHOLOGY 7.1. PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL AFFIXES 7.1.1. Pronouns7.1.2. Pronominal affixes7.2. BOUND MORPHOLOGYCHAPTER 8. HISTORICAL SYNTAX 8.1OVERVIEW OF SYNTACTIC RECONSTRUCTION8.2. XINKAN SYNTACTIC RECONSTRUCTION 8.2.1. Syntactic alignment8.2.2. Verb classes8.2.3. Word order8.2.4. Nominal syntax reconstructionCHAPTER 9. LOOKING FORWARDAPPENDIXREGULAR VERB CONJUGATIONIRREGULAR VERB CONJUGATIONBIBLIOGRAPHYTYPOLOGICAL INDEXTOPICAL INDEXNOTES

CHRIS ROGERS is a visiting professor of linguistics at Brigham Young University. He has served as Director of the Center for American Indian Languages at the University of Utah and has conducted extensive linguistic fieldwork in Mexico, Guatemala, Argentina, Peru, Brazil, and Venezuela.This book is a part of the Recovering Languages and Literacies of the Americas publication initiative, funded by a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

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• LIST OF FIGURESLIST OF TABLESACKNOWLEDGMENTSLIST OF ABBREVIATIONSCHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE LANGUAGES AND THEIR SPEAKERS 1.1. THE XINKAN LINGUISTIC CONTEXT1.2. PAST WORK WITH THE XINKAN LANGUAGES1.3. THE XINKAN SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT1.4. ORGANIZATION OF THE GRAMMAR 1.4.1. Description of data sourcesPART I. THE USE OF THE XINKAN LANGUAGES: SYNCHRONIC GRAMMAR CHAPTER 2. PHONOLOGY 2.1. VOWELS 2.1.1. Vowel length2.1.2. Vowel Harmony2.2. CONSONANTS 2.2.1. GuazacapÁn2.2.2. Chiquimulilla2.2.3. Jumaytepeque2.2.4. Yupiltepeque2.2.5. Consonant distribution2.3. PHONOLOGICAL ALTERNATIONS 2.3.1. Glottalization2.3.2. Voicing of stop following a nasal2.3.3. Nasal assimilation2.3.4. Lenition to [h]2.3.5. Vowel raising2.3.6. Glottal-stop epenthesis2.3.7. Consonant dissimilation2.3.8. Guazacapan Consonant deletion2.4. SYLLABLE STRUCTURE2.5. STRESS2.6. ORTHOGRAPHYCHAPTER 3. MORPHOLOGY 3.1. NOUNS 3.1.1. Possession3.1.2. Number3.1.3. Diminutive constructions3.2. ADJECTIVES 3.2.1. Adjectives as modifiers of nouns3.2.2. Adjectives modified by ki ‘very’3.2.3. Comparative and Superlative Constructions3.3. DETERMINERS 3.3.1. Articles3.3.2. Demonstratives3.3.3. Quantifiers3.4. NOUN PHRASES3.5. PRONOUNS 3.5.1. Independent personal pronouns3.5.2. Dependent pronouns3.6. VERBS 3.6.1. Verb classes and transitivity3.6.2. Subject agreement3.6.3. Grammatical aspect3.6.4. Imperative form3.6.5. Constrastive construction in GuazacpÁn3.6.6. Tense3.6.7. Grammatical Voice3.6.8. Mood and modality3.7. RELATIONAL NOUNS3.8. VERBAL PARTICLES 3.8.1. p’e/p’eh directional3.8.2. wa optative3.8.3. Negative imperative particle in GuazacapÁn3.8.4. Verbs borrowed from Spanish3.9. NOMINAL PARTICLES 3.9.1. kumu ‘as’3.9.2. ti’i- / t’i- direct object3.9.3. ‘i- reflexive in GuazacapÁn3.9.4. ki’3.9.5. kiki-/kih3.10. QUESTION WORDS3.11. CONJUNCTIONS3.12. DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY 3.12.1. Noun derivations3.12.2. Adjective derivations3.12.3. Verbal derivationCHAPTER 4. SYNTAX 4.1. SYNTACTIC ALIGNMENT 4.1.1. Grammatical relations4.1.2. Semantic relations4.1.3. Antipassive and verb agreement4.2. SIMPLE SENTENCE FORMATION 4.2.1. Sentences with verbs4.2.2. Copular sentences4.3. QUESTION FORMATION 4.3.1. Yes/no questions4.3.2. Content questions (wh-questions)4.4. PREPOSING4.5. NEGATION4.6. COMPLEX SENTENCE FORMATION 4.6.1. Conjoined clauses4.6.2. Serial verb constructions4.6.3. Relative clauses4.6.4. Complement clauses4.6.5. Adverbial clauses4.6.6. Conditional clausesCHAPTER 5. TEXT 5.1. NA MULHA UYPART II THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE XINKAN LANGUAGES: DIACHRONIC GRAMMAR CHAPTER 6. HISTORICAL PHONOLOGY 6.1. INTRODUCTION6.2. COMMENTARY ON THE RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-XINKAN6.3. PROTO-XINKAN PHONOLOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION 6.3.1Consonants6.3.2. Vowel changes6.4. SUMMARY OF SOUND CHANGES6.5. SUBGROUPING6.6. CONCLUSIONCHAPTER 7. HISTORICAL MORPHOLOGY 7.1. PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL AFFIXES 7.1.1. Pronouns7.1.2. Pronominal affixes7.2. BOUND MORPHOLOGYCHAPTER 8. HISTORICAL SYNTAX 8.1OVERVIEW OF SYNTACTIC RECONSTRUCTION8.2. XINKAN SYNTACTIC RECONSTRUCTION 8.2.1. Syntactic alignment8.2.2. Verb classes8.2.3. Word order8.2.4. Nominal syntax reconstructionCHAPTER 9. LOOKING FORWARDAPPENDIXREGULAR VERB CONJUGATIONIRREGULAR VERB CONJUGATIONBIBLIOGRAPHYTYPOLOGICAL INDEXTOPICAL INDEXNOTES