Evaluating and Conducting Research in Audiology

Vinaya Manchaiah, AuD, MBA, PhD, is a Jo Mayo Endowed Professor of Speech and Hearing Sciences at the Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences at Lamar University, Beaumont, Texas. He received is BSc from the All India Institute of Speech and Hearing (AIISH), India, his MSc from the Institute of Sound and Vibration Research (ISVR), University of Southampton, UK, his clinical doctorate (AuD) from Nova Southeastern University, US, and his research doctorate (PhD) from Linkoeping University in Sweden. He also holds Executive MBA and a post-graduate certificate degree in teaching in higher education from Swansea University in UK. He has worked in various clinical, research, teaching, and administrative roles, although his current academic appointment centers predominantly on research. His research focuses on improving the accessibility, affordability, and outcomes of hearing loss and tinnitus by promoting self-management and use of digital technologies. His research has been funded by various organizations including the National Institutes of Health (NIH). He has published more than 130 peer-reviewed manuscripts and four books. He has received numerous awards including the prestigious Bharat Samman Award from the NRI Institute in India in 2017, Erskine fellowship from the University of Canterbury in New Zealand in 2019, and was named a Jerger Future Leader of Audiology by the American Academy of Audiology in 2016.+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++Eldre Beukes, PhD, is the Post-doctoral Researcher and Research Audiologist at the Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences at Lamar University, Beaumont, Texas. She received her BSc in South Africa, her MSc in Audiology from the University of Manchester and her PhD was awarded from Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK. She is a clinical scientist in Audiology and was awarded the Richard May prize following her training. She received the prestigious Shapiro prize from the British Tinnitus Association for her research three years in a row (between 2017- 2019) and the Hallpike Research Prize in 2019 from the British Association of Audiological Physicians for her work involving the development and running of clinical trials to assess the effectiveness of Internet-based interventions.+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++Ross J. Roeser, PhD holds the Lois and Howard Wolf Professorship in Pediatric Hearing in the School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences at the University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, Texas. He is also the Director Emeritus of The University of Texas at Dallas/Callier Center for Communication Disorders in Dallas. He is the founding Editor-in-Chief of Ear and Hearing, is currently the Editor-in-Chief Emeritus of the International Journal of Audiology and has contributed to multiple publications to the audiological literature.

• Foreword Jim and Susan JergerForeword by Kevin J Munro, PhDPrefaceAcknowledgementsReviewersAbout the Authors Section A: Research Methods in AudiologyChapter 1. The Research ProcessLearning OutcomesThe Role of Research within AudiologyDefining ResearchUsual PracticeService EvaluationClinical AuditOverview of the Research ProcessStage 1: Conceiving the StudyReviewing the Existing Literature Developing the Scope and Aim of the StudyIdentifying and Formulating Research QuestionsCreating HypothesesStage 2: Designing the StudyResearch Variables Experimental versus Non-Experimental Research Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research MethodologiesResearch Compliance Stage 3: Data CollectionData Collection FormatType and Amount of Data CollectedData Collection SettingData Management Stage 4: Analyzing Data and Drawing ConclusionsInspecting the Data for ErrorsStatistical AnalysisDrawing Conclusions Stage 5: DisseminationTranslating Research into Clinical PracticeThe Research Proposal The Research TeamFeasibility of Research ProjectOutlining the Resources Required Planning the Time ScaleConsiderations for Recruiting and Maintaining ParticipantsPreregistration of StudiesKey PointsReview QuestionsReferencesChapter 2. Research ComplianceLearning OutcomesResearch ComplianceEthical Considerations for Human and Animal ResearchEthical Codes Then Nuremberg CodeThe Declaration of Helsinki The Belmont ReportEthical PrinciplesGood Clinical PracticeResearch Principles Outlined by Professional AssociationsData Protection Confidentiality and PrivacyThe European General Data Protection Act (GDPR)The United States Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)Research with Vulnerable GroupsInformed ConsentWays of Providing the Necessary Informed ConsentCapacity to ConsentResearch Involving AnimalsThe Ethical Application ProcessApplying for Ethical ApprovalEthical Application in Settings with Ethical Review BoardsEthical Applications in Independent SettingsResearch Ethics for International ResearchResearch IntegrityResearch FudgingConflict of InterestCredit for Intellectual EffortTypes of Copyright License Active Partnerships to Increase Research Quality and CompliancePatient and Public Involvement in ResearchReporting PPI Involvement in Academic PublicationsKey PointsReview QuestionsReferencesChapter 3. Research MethodsLearning OutcomesDefining Scientific MethodsScientific Theory, Law and ModelsScientific TheoryScientific LawScientific ModelHistory and Philosophy of ScienceHistory of SciencePhilosophy of ScienceNaive RealismAnti-realismCritical Realism Role of Theory in ResearchDeductive versus Inductive InferenceResearch Hierarchy: Methodology, Method, and DesignTypes of ResearchEmpirical versus Non-empirical Research Basic versus Applied Research Animal versus Human Research Descriptive versus Analytical Research Exploratory versus Confirmatory Research Feasibility versus Pilot StudiesProspective versus Retrospective Research Quantitative versus Qualitative Research Observational versus Experimental Research Laboratory versus Field Research Cross-sectional versus Longitudinal Research Common Ways of Categorizing Research StudiesResearch Methodology Quantitative Research VariableQualitative ResearchDifference and Opinion Between Quantitative and Qualitative ResearchMixed-Methods Research Common Research Strategies Used in Audiology Key PointsReview QuestionsReferencesChapter 4. Research DesignLearning OutcomesIntroductionResearch DesignsCross-sectional DesignRepeated Cross-sectional DesignCohort DesignCase-Control DesignExperimental DesignPre-, Quasi-, and True Experimental Designs A Randomized Controlled TrialParallel-group versus Cross-over Experimental Designs Treatment Efficacy and Effectiveness TrialsConsiderations When Choosing Research DesignsCriteria for Quality in Quantitative ResearchValidityReliabilityGeneralizabilityEvaluating Clinical ResearchQuality Analysis of Studies and Level of Evidence Nature of Clinical DataClinical Practice GuidelinesRigor and Reproducibility in Scientific ResearchThe Reproducibility Crisis in ResearchBest Evidence versus Best Available Evidence Minimizing Bias in Research Key Points Review QuestionsReferencesChapter 5. Variables, Sampling and Sample SizeLearning OutcomesIntroductionVariables in Empirical ResearchTypes of VariablesIndependent VariableDependent VariableExtraneous VariableConfounding VariableDemographic VariableEnvironmental VariableExamples of Different Variables in a StudyVariables During Data Collection and AnalysisLevels of MeasurementPopulations and SamplesParameters versus StatisticsSample CharacteristicsSampling MethodsProbability SamplingSimple Random Sampling Systematic Random SamplingStratified Random SamplingCluster Sampling Non-probability SamplingConvenience SamplingSnowball SamplingConsecutive SamplingQuota SamplingSelf-selection SamplingPurposive SamplingTheoretical SamplingChallenges in Implementing Probability Sampling MethodsSampling BiasSample SizeSampling ErrorPower AnalysisSample Size EstimationPost-hoc Power AnalysisChallenges in Recruiting Study Participants Key PointsReview QuestionsReferencesChapter 6. Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative DataLearning OutcomesIntroductionAn Overview of Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative DataPreparing Data for Analysis Error Checking and OutliersMissing DataDescribing the DataMeasures of Central TendencyMeanMedianModeMeasures of VariabilityRangeVariance Standard DeviationZ-ScoresStandard ErrorQuartiles Describing the DistributionNormal DistributionSkewness and Kurtosis Central Limit TheoremData TransformationSelecting Appropriate Statistical TestsAssumptions Required for Parametric TestingAssumptions of Normality Homogeneity of Variance Considerations When Using Parametric StatisticsConsiderations When Using Non-Parametric StatisticsQuantitative Data Analysis Hypothesis Testing Specifying the HypothesesProbability Values (P-value)One- or Two-Tailed TestsDegrees of FreedomAlternative or Complementary Approaches to Significance Testing Effect Size CalculationsConfidence Interval and Margin of ErrorClinical Significance Bayesian AnalysisTesting Differences Between Two Means T-testTypes of t-testsComparing Groups Analysis of VarianceMain Effects and Interaction EffectsTypes of Analysis of VarianceAnalysis of CovariancePost-hoc Testing Examining Relationships Between VariablesCorrelation AnalysisThe Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient Predicting and Assessing the Strength of the Relationship Between Variables Regression AnalysisNon-Parametric Regression ModelsGrouping Variables Factor Analysis Cluster Analysis Analyzing the Performance of Diagnostic Tests Reporting Statistical Test ResultsReporting the Outcome of Statistical Analysis Visual Representation of the DataCommon Pitfalls When Conducting and Reporting StatisticsInterpreting Statistical FindingsKey PointsReview QuestionsReferencesChapter 7. Qualitative Research MethodsLearning OutcomesScope and Context of Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research TraditionsGrounded TheoryPhenomenologyEthnographyEthnomethodologyAction ResearchNarrative ResearchCase StudySampling and Recruiting ParticipantsSampling MethodsConvenience Sampling Snowball SamplingPurposive SamplingMaximum Variation SamplingTheoretical SamplingDetermining Sampling MethodSampling AdequacyOther Considerations when Recruiting Participants Data Collection Methods and SettingsData Collection MethodsInterviewsFocus GroupsQuestionnairesObservationsDocument AnalysisEmploying Multiple Data Collection MethodsData Collection SettingsChecking AccuracyData Analysis MethodsTwo Main Approaches to Qualitative Data AnalysisData Analysis StepsTranscribing DataBecoming Familiar with the DataData OrganizationGenerating CodesData Interpretation and Pattern IdentificationTying Field Data to Research Objective(s) and Drawing Verifiable Conclusions Common Qualitative Data Analysis MethodsDescriptive AnalysisContent AnalysisThematic AnalysisConstant Comparative MethodConversation AnalysisDiscourse AnalysisInterpretive Phenomenological AnalysisData Saturation and Trustworthiness Use of Qualitative Data Analysis Software ProgramsRole of the ResearcherEmic or Etic Research PerspectivesTheoretical Orientation and Methodological ChoicesTraining and ExperienceDisciplined SubjectivitySafeguarding Participant AnonymityAcknowledging the Role of a ResearcherReporting Qualitative ResearchThick Description of the DataInterpretive ThemesAnonymity of ParticipantsVisual Presentation of the DataScientific Rigor in Qualitative ResearchReflexivityValidityCredibilityDependabilityConfirmability and Audit TrailTransferabilityKey PointsReview QuestionsReferencesChapter 8. Mixed-Methods ResearchLearning OutcomesIntroductionOverview of Mixed-Methods ResearchCharacteristics of Mixed-Method ResearchComparing Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed-Methods ResearchAdvantages and Challenges of Mixed-Method ResearchConducting Mixed Methods ResearchIdentifying the Rationale for MMRSelecting the Study Design within MMRIdentifying the Sampling StrategyData Collection Data AnalysisData InterferencesExamples of Mixed Method Studies in AudiologyBig Data Research Using Mixed-Methods Evaluating Mixed-Method ResearchKey PointsReview QuestionsReferencesChapter 9. Survey Research Learning OutcomesDefining Survey ResearchAdvantages and Limitations of Survey Research Purposes of SurveysGathering Opinions, Beliefs, and FeelingsDiagnostic Measure Outcome Measure Epidemiological Studies Multi-purpose SurveysStudy Designs in Survey ResearchCross-sectional SurveysRepeated Cross-sectional SurveysPanel SurveysSurvey ExperimentsSampling and Participant RecruitmentSampling MethodsSample Size Adequacy Response RateData Collection MethodsTypes of Surveys QuestionnairesInterviews Mixed Mode SurveysSurvey Administration Methods Written Survey Oral Survey Paper and Pencil versus Electronic SurveyFirst-hand versus Third-party Administration Types of QuestionsOpen-ended QuestionsClosed-ended QuestionsMixture of Open-ended and Closed-ended QuestionsResponse OptionsRating versus RankingOpen Response FormatsDichotomous ResponsesLikert Response ScalesVisual Analogue Scale (VAS)Missing Data and Erroneous Data The Importance of AnonymityConsiderations for Designing, Adapting, Validating or Choosing a QuestionnaireDesigning a Questionnaire Conceptual ClarityComprehensibility Wording of QuestionsResponse Formats and ScoringQuestion SequenceAdministration FormatKeep Analysis in MindChecking Survey QualityPre-testingTranslation and Adaptation of Questionnaires Validating a QuestionnaireValidityReliabilityResponsivenessInterpretability Floor and Ceiling EffectChoosing a QuestionnaireCore Outcome Set (COS)Approaches to Survey Data AnalysesPreparing Data for the Analysis Types of DataData StructureChoosing a Data Analysis MethodAnalysis of Likert-scale ResponsesData Interpretation Describing PhenomenonCorrelation versus Causality Reported Behavior versus Actual BehaviorAdequacy of Psychometric Properties Sources of Bias in Survey ResearchKey PointsReview QuestionsReferencesSection B. Evidence-Based PracticeChapter 10. Evidence-Based PracticeLearning OutcomesHealthcare Decision Making Types of KnowledgeTraditional KnowledgeAuthority KnowledgePersonal KnowledgeTrial and Error KnowledgeResearch-Based KnowledgeHierarchy of Knowledge TypesEvidence-Based Practice (EBP)A Brief History of EBPDefinitionsBenefits and Risks of EBPEBP StepsStep 1 - Developing and Defining Clinical QuestionsStep 2 - Search for the Best Available Research EvidenceStep 3 -Synthesize the EvidenceStep 4 - Implement the EvidenceStep 5 - Evaluate the OutcomesImplementation Issues for EBP in Clinical PracticeClinical Practice Guidelines (CPGs)Acceptance and Adherence IssuesExamples of Challenges for EBP ImplementationExample 1 - Lack of Organizational SupportExample 2 - Healthcare Service ReimbursementExample 3 - Overabundance of Available Evidence Example 4 - Misuse of the Non-Peer Reviewed EvidenceCommon Myths and Misconceptions about EBP Evaluating Research for EBPThe Future of EBPKey PointsReview QuestionsReferencesChapter 11. Systematic Literature Review and Meta-analysisLearning OutcomesResearch Reviews in Clinical PracticeTypes of ReviewsNarrative (or Descriptive) ReviewScoping ReviewSystematic ReviewReview of ReviewsSystematic Review Process Requirements for a Systematic ReviewIdentifying a Research Area Establishing the Rationale for ReviewsFormulating Research Questions Searching and Appraising Previous Reviews Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) Checklist for Systematic ReviewsAssessing Methodological Quality of Systematic Review (AMSTER)Risk of Bias Assessment Tool for Systematic Reviews (ROBIS)Scoping SearchInclusion and Exclusion CriteriaReview RegistrationDeveloping the Search Strategy Information SourcesKeyword SelectionPerforming the Search and Selecting Appropriate Papers Referencing ManagementData ExtractionOutcomes and PrioritizationBiasesQuality Assessment Assessment of Methodological Quality Assessment of Risk of BiasDetermining Level of EvidenceData SynthesisDescriptive SynthesisNarrative Synthesis Thematic SynthesisQuantitative Synthesis (Meta-analysis)Reporting the Review Outcomes Performing a Meta-analysisUse of Software in Meta-analysis Criteria for Performing a Quantitative SynthesisAssessing Appropriateness of Doing a Meta-analysisPrinciple 1: Power AnalysisPrinciple 2: Examination of Confidence Interval WidthPrinciple 3: Assessment of Heterogeneity Publication BiasSummary MeasuresStatistical ModelsOdds or Risk RatiosEstimating Effect SizesStandardization and Weighting StudiesSubgroup AnalysisSensitivity AnalysisMeta-regressionReporting Guidelines for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysisKey PointsReview QuestionsReferencesSection C. Conducting and Disseminating ResearchChapter 12. Student-Led Research ProjectsLearning OutcomesImportance of Student-Led Research ProjectsBenefits of Student-Lead ResearchElements of Student-Led ResearchSelecting the TopicSelecting a Mentor and Committee MembersConducting a Literature Review Access to Full-TextInter-Library LoanDeveloping the Research ProposalIdentifying the Scope of the ResearchDefining the Research Questions Writing the Research Proposal Gaining the Necessary ApprovalsInvolving Service Users in ResearchGathering the Research DataData Analysis and Drawing Appropriate ConclusionsWriting and Reporting the Research FindingsEffective Planning of the ResearchCreating a Realistic Research Plan Dealing with Ongoing ChallengesTime Management Disseminating the Research OutcomesExamples of Published Student-Led Projects in AudiologyKey PointsReview QuestionsReferencesChapter 13. Disseminating Research FindingsLearning OutcomesImportance of Scientific Findings-DisseminationPlanning Dissemination of Scientific FindingsPresenting Research Findings at Professional ConferencesScientific PublicationsScientific Truth Peer-Reviewed PublicationsPredatory "Peer Reviewed" PublicationsPublishing Negative ResultsNon-Peer Reviewed PublicationsImportant Considerations When Choosing the JournalScope of the JournalTarget Audience Manuscript Types and Word LimitsImpact FactorConflict of InterestCopyright AssignmentOpen AccessPublication ChargesTips for Successful PublishingInvest Enough Time in the Process Choose the Most Appropriate JournalFollow the Journal Submission GuidelinesUse Standard Guidelines for Scientific ReportingImportance of the Cover Letter Components of the ManuscriptMore on the AbstractReferencingProfessional Copy EditingAuthorship Order and Honorary AuthorshipAddressing Reviewers' ConcernsStrategies to Enhance Reach and Impact of ResearchReviewing Others Research WorkBenefits of Peer-Reviewing Others WorkHow to Conduct Peer-Review of Scientific Work Key PointsReview QuestionsReferencesIndex