Pascal Lièvre is Professor in Management Sciences at Clermont Auvergne University, France.Monique Aubry is Professor of Project Management at the Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada.Gilles Garel is Professor of Innovation Management at the National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts, France.

• Preface xviiCerisy Symposiums. Selection of Publications xxiIntroduction xxvPart 1. Exploration and the Extreme 1Section 1. The Logic of Exploration 3Chapter 1. An Exemplary Exploration Story: Nansen’s Expedition to the North Pole 5Pascal LIÈVRE1.1. Introduction 51.2. A project that makes “sense” because it is consistent with an identity-based learning trajectory 71.3. A radical dual ambidextrous capacity 91.3.1. Planning 101.3.2. Adaptation 111.3.3. Exploration 121.3.4. Exploitation 121.4. A dynamic of knowledge expansion in terms of an epistemic community 131.4.1. The Intention 141.4.2. The spark 151.4.3. The manifesto 151.4.4. Various experts who formed a community around the project 151.4.5. A continuous increase in implementing knowledge 161.5. Conclusion 161.6. References 17Chapter 2. Project Management in Extreme Situations: The Manhattan Case 21Sylvain LENFLE2.1. Introduction 212.2. The origins of the Manhattan project 222.3. Exploring the unknown 232.4. The Manhattan Project organization 262.5. Project management as sensemaking 292.6. The expansive legacy of the Manhattan project and the limit of the metaphor 322.7. References 34Section 2. Exploration Testimonies 37Chapter 3. Exploration, the Common Theme of a Training System on Innovation 39Bruno STÉVENIN and Éric DÉPRAETERE3.1. The initial context at the origin of the adventure 393.2. The launch and preparation of the training program characteristic of exploration 403.3. The heart of program design: a step-by-step exploration 423.4. The transition to exploitation 493.5. Conclusion 523.6. 2017, Toward future explorations 533.7. References 53Chapter 4. A New Progress Technique in the Himalayas 55Paulo GROBEL4.1. Introduction 554.2. The Himalayan technique, a reference 554.3. The emergence of new strategies 564.4. But also, listening to the doctors’ recommendations... 574.5. “Doing it together” 574.6. Snail strategy, gentle progression, slow expedition, continuous progression? 584.6.1. Toward a name change 584.6.2. We have therefore named our strategy “progression douce” (gentle progression) 594.6.3. The gentle progression has become “the snail’s strategy” 594.6.4. The snail strategy has been transformed into a slow expedition 604.6.5. Slow expedition now becomes continuous progress 604.7. Not to conclude.... 60Section 3. Toward an Extreme Ethnography 63Chapter 5. Some Methodological Considerations in Relation to the Objects Involved 65Mondher KILANIChapter 6. Ethnography of the Extreme: Epistemological and Methodological Issues of the Use of Video 75Géraldine RIX-LIÈVRE6.1. Introduction 756.2. An involved and involving ethnography 776.3. Interests and limitations of the use of video in the production of materials 796.4. Video, a modality of ethnographic writing 816.5. Video, for an ethnography of activity 836.6. References 88Part 2. Creativity and Organizational Reliability 91Section 4. Organizational Creativity 93Chapter 7. Management of a Crisis Situation in a Large Video Game Studio 95Patrick COHENDET and Laurent SIMON7.1. Introduction 957.2. A creativity crisis at Ubisoft’s studio 967.3. Management of a major crisis 997.3.1. Bisociation 997.3.2. The recomposition of routines by a sequence of bisociations 1017.4. Conclusion 1037.5. References 103Chapter 8. Organizing Innovative Design or How to Remain an Explorer: The Case of Creaholic 105Gilles GAREL8.1. Introduction 1058.2. Innovative design and ambidextry 1068.2.1. Forms of ambidexterity 1078.2.2. Ambidextrous relationships 1098.3. The case of Creaholic, an innovative design company 1108.3.1. Creaholic, an IDE that produces repeated innovation 1108.3.2. A relevant governance structure 1128.4. Discussion and conclusion: the IDE and a return to exploitation 1168.5. References 119Section 5. Creativity under Constraint 121Chapter 9. Creativity under Constraint: A Management Sciences Perspective 123Guy PARMENTIER9.1. Introduction 1239.2. The different types of constraints and their actions 1249.3. Internal design and cognitive constraints 1259.4. Situational time and resource constraints 1279.5. Border constraints 1299.6. The construction of the sense of constraints 1309.7. Organizational climate 1319.8. Conclusion 1339.9. References 133Chapter 10. Creativity for Extreme Situations 139Samira BOURGEOIS-BOUGRINE and Todd LUBART10.1. Introduction 13910.2. Introduction to creativity 14010.2.1. Definition of creativity 14010.2.2. Creative processes 14110.3. Creativity and risk management 14310.3.1. Creativity, insight and intuition when making decisions in extreme situations 14410.3.2. Creativity and daily risk management 14710.4. Creativity for anticipating extreme situations 14810.4.1. What can we learn from fiction writers? 14910.4.2. Co-creativity in a virtual environment 15110.5. Conclusion 15310.6. References 154Section 6. Organizational Reliability 159Chapter 11. Scope and Limits of Extreme Situations for Highly Reliable Organizations: A Pragmatic Interpretation 161Benoît JOURNÉ11.1. Introduction 16111.2. The growing interest in extreme situations 16111.3. The pragmatist approach to situations 16211.4. HROs: keeping extreme situations under control 16311.5. The mutual influence of situations and organization: between normality and extremity 16411.6. Extremity traps and extreme situations 16511.7. Conditions for a contribution of extreme situations to the knowledge of situations and organizations 16611.8. References 167Chapter 12. Error in Decision-Making Processes in Operational Situations: The Case of Fire Rescue Organizations 169Anaïs GAUTIER12.1. Introduction 16912.2. The study of ordinary situations in codified activities for decision making 17012.2.1. Extreme and unique contexts of at-risk organizations 17012.2.2. Situation awareness theory to understand the cognitive process of actors 17112.2.3. Reasoning error for a cognitive approach 17112.3. Action-research methodology for analysing decision making in situations 17212.4. The case of the organization of rescue operations in forest firefighting operations: the management of cross-border operations 17412.4.1. Definition of the extreme context of the forest firefighting operation 17412.4.2. Application of situation awareness theory to the identification of the decision-making process 17512.5. Perception of error as a practice for learning 17712.6. References 178Part 3. Register of the Intelligibility of Extreme Management Situations 181Section 7. Meaning and Sensemaking 183Chapter 13. Going to Extreme Situations: What Meaning Should be Given to Such a Project? 185Jean-Pierre BOUTINET13.1. Introduction 18513.2. Why go on a journey or an expedition? 18613.3. The unavoidable concern of the quest for meaning 18713.4. The project approach that generates meaning 18813.5. The meaning of a project for its stakeholders: author and actors 19013.6. The uncertainties linked to the project when thinking about extreme situations 19213.7. What meaning should be given to the willingness to undertake the project? 19313.7.1. Where can we go? 19313.7.2. Why leave? 19413.7.3. What significant opportunities dictate the current situation? 19513.7.4. How does my current questioning resonate with my personal history? 19613.7.5. Whom to carry out a project with? 19713.8. To start a project, the art of steering a boat 19813.9. References 200Chapter 14. Sense, Sensitivity and Competence 201Michel RÉCOPÉ14.1. Introduction 20114.2. Norms, actions and cognitive activity 20214.3. Meaning or sense? 20314.4. Proposal for “common sense” 20414.5. “Sensitivity to” and practical rationality 20614.6. “Sensitivity to” and structured activity 20814.7. “Sensitivity to” and competence 21014.8. What about extreme situations according to this approach? 21014.9. References 211Chapter 15. A Sea Kayaker’s Identity Route and Learning Experience in the Arctic 215Pascal CROSET15.1. Genesis 21515.2. 2007: the initiation 21615.3. 2008: the road to autonomy 21615.4. 2009: fraternity 21815.5. 2010: learning about limits, and the need for sharing 21915.6. 2011: the discovery of a new territory 22015.7. 2012: teaming up with a (nearly) unknown person 22115.8. 2013: filiation (1) 22215.9. 2014: the parallel world 22315.10. 2015: filiation (2) 22415.11. 2016: filiation (3) between adults 22515.12. 2017: serenity and satisfaction 22515.13. Knowledge and self-improvement, more than an identity journey 22615.14. Putting everything into perspective 22715.15. Conclusion 228Section 8. Organizational Ambidexterity 229Chapter 16. Organizational Ambidexterity: The Double Organic Ambidexterity 231Monique AUBRY16.1. Summary 23116.2. Double ambidexterity: an essential skill of the project manager 23216.3. From polar expedition to organizational change 23216.4. Methodological aspects 23416.5. Identifying mode changes: transitions 23416.5.1. Case A 23516.5.2. Case B 23516.5.3. Case C 23516.6. Organic ambidexterity as a meta-competency 23616.7. Conclusion 23716.8. Acknowledgments 23816.9. Appendix: changes in mode of action in all three cases 23916.10. References 240Chapter 17. Radical Change in an Extreme Context: Mountaineers Conquering the Darwin Cordillera in Patagonia 243Geneviève MUSCA17.1 Introduction 24317.2. The episode of radical change 24417.3. Implementation of a radical change in an extreme context 24617.4. Methodology 24717.5. The implementation of radical change: from boat to bags 24817.6. References 250Section 9. The Expansion of Knowledge 253Chapter 18. A Knowledge Corpus and Innovation 255Jean-Louis ERMINE and Pierre SAULAIS18.1. Creativity is not only based on imagination 25518.2. The use of existing knowledge to improve creativity 25818.3. Case study: a creative process based on knowledge in Thales Air Systems 26018.3.1. The creative environment 26018.3.2. The creative process based on knowledge 26318.4. Lessons learned and conditions for success 26718.5. Appendix 26818.6. References 270Chapter 19. Community of Practice, Variation of Knowledge and Change in Extreme Management Situations 273Jean-Philippe BOOTZ and Olivier DUPOUËT19.1. Introduction 27319.2 Emerging change and knowledge variation through spontaneous CoPs 27419.2.1. Change as an emerging process 27419.2.2. CoPs as a mechanism for developing and modifying practices 27519.3. Change leads to constellations of communities 27619.3.1. Knowledge variation and change within communities of practice 27619.3.2. Propagation and combinations of variations in a constellation of communities 27719.4. Induced change, knowledge expansion and pilot communities of practice 27919.4.1. Leading change through managed communities of practice: a tension of self-organization/control 28019.4.2. PCoPs and knowledge expansion: exploration and exploitation 28219.5. Conclusion 28519.6. References 285Chapter 20. Expanding Knowledge and Mobilizing Social Networks 289Marc LECOUTRE20.1. Introduction 28920.2. Innovation, network and knowledge expansion 29020.3. Expanding knowledge: two examples in uncertain and risky situations 29020.3.1. An example of the acquisition of scientific knowledge during the preparation for a polar expedition 29120.3.2. An example of experiential learning: the crossing of Spitsbergen by a team of young students with little experience 29120.4. The contributions of the two streams of research in social network theory 29220.4.1. The approach by distinguishing ties according to their strength (Granovetter 1973) 29220.4.2. The structural approach 29420.5. Feedback and questions on these approaches 29520.5.1. First question: the nature of the tie 29520.5.2. Second question: the nature of knowledge 29620.5.3. Third question: the nature of the process 29720.6. The question of the nature of ties the notion of a “potentially strong” weak tie 29820.7. Conclusion: relational network and process of knowledge expansion 30020.8. References 301Chapter 21. The Crowd and the Expansion of Knowledge 305Claude GUITTARD and Éric SCHENK21.1. Introduction 30521.2. The crowds and knowledge 30621.2.1. The crowd, the company and the market 30621.2.2. The factors of crowd irrationality 30621.3. Crowds and the media 30921.4. The new visions of the crowd 31021.5. Internet: towards a wise crowd? 31121.6. Crowds and knowledge expansion: crowdsourcing 31221.6.1. The different types of crowdsourcing 31221.6.2. Crowdsourcing and knowledge expansion 31721.7. Conclusion 31921.8. References 320Part 4 The Variety of Extreme Situations and Disciplinary Perspectives 323Section 10. The Variety of Extreme Situations 325Chapter 22. The Routines of Creation: From Artistic Direction to Collective Exploration 327David MASSÉ22.1. Introduction 32722.2. Three training schemes in the creative industries 32822.2.1. Guy Laliberté and the transformation of athletes into artists at Cirque du Soleil 32822.2.2. Serge Hascoët and game design training at Ubisoft 32922.2.3. Bartabas and the Académie du spectacle équestre de Versailles 32922.3. The routines of creation: from artistic direction to the collective exploration of talents 33022.3.1. Macro-routines: the “direction” links given by the creator 33122.3.2. Micro-routines: exploration spaces for talent 33322.4. Conclusion 33522.4.1. Trick 1: highlighting practice in transmission 33622.4.2. Trick 2: fostering accommodation through the reduction of feedback 33622.4.3. Trick 3: creating an environment conducive to uncertainty 33722.5. References 337Chapter 23. The Young Researcher Program for Extreme Situations 339Christelle BARON, Emmanuel BONNET, Stéphane CELLIER-COURTIL, Nicolas LAROCHE and Isabelle MAGNE23.1. Introduction 33923.2. What is a power that promotes the emergence of potential action among actors in situations of uncertainty? 34023.3. The terms of engagement and the processes for regulating collective action in the context of the liberated company: the case of Crédit Agricole Centre Loire 34123.4. The rules of the game of an epistemic community 34223.5. Constructing action knowledge for a wealth management advisor 34323.6. Rethinking logistics from knowledge flows 34423.7. Conclusion 34523.8. References 346Section 11. Disciplinary Perspectives 351Chapter 24. Knowledge Transfer and Learning in Extreme Situations: The Psychologist’s Vision 353Jean-Claude COULET24.1. Introduction 35324.2. Knowledge transfer: a questionable notion 35424.2.1. The notions of knowledge 35424.2.2. The development of knowledge 35524.3. Learning: theoretical considerations 35724.3.1. A modeling of skills 35724.3.2. Forms of learning 35924.4 Collective skills, learning and strategic management 36024.4.1. Knowledge in practice 36024.4.2. The hierarchy of skills 36124.4.3. The articulation between individual and collective skills 36124.5. Conclusion 36324.6. References 364Chapter 25. Expeditions as a Legitimate Object in Management Sciences 367Linda ROULEAU25.1. Introduction 36725.2. Expeditions as “legitimate objects”? 36825.3 Generalization, rigor and relevance in articles in peer-reviewed journals dealing with expeditions 37025.4. Challenges of producing “legitimate” knowledge from the expedition as an empirical object 37325.5. References 375Conclusion 377Gilles GAREL, Monique AUBRY and Pascal LIÈVREList of Authors 385Index 389

Pascal Lièvre is Professor in Management Sciences at Clermont Auvergne University, France.Monique Aubry is Professor of Project Management at the Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada.Gilles Garel is Professor of Innovation Management at the National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts, France.

• Preface xviiCerisy Symposiums. Selection of Publications xxiIntroduction xxvPart 1. Exploration and the Extreme 1Section 1. The Logic of Exploration 3Chapter 1. An Exemplary Exploration Story: Nansen’s Expedition to the North Pole 5Pascal LIÈVRE1.1. Introduction 51.2. A project that makes “sense” because it is consistent with an identity-based learning trajectory 71.3. A radical dual ambidextrous capacity 91.3.1. Planning 101.3.2. Adaptation 111.3.3. Exploration 121.3.4. Exploitation 121.4. A dynamic of knowledge expansion in terms of an epistemic community 131.4.1. The Intention 141.4.2. The spark 151.4.3. The manifesto 151.4.4. Various experts who formed a community around the project 151.4.5. A continuous increase in implementing knowledge 161.5. Conclusion 161.6. References 17Chapter 2. Project Management in Extreme Situations: The Manhattan Case 21Sylvain LENFLE2.1. Introduction 212.2. The origins of the Manhattan project 222.3. Exploring the unknown 232.4. The Manhattan Project organization 262.5. Project management as sensemaking 292.6. The expansive legacy of the Manhattan project and the limit of the metaphor 322.7. References 34Section 2. Exploration Testimonies 37Chapter 3. Exploration, the Common Theme of a Training System on Innovation 39Bruno STÉVENIN and Éric DÉPRAETERE3.1. The initial context at the origin of the adventure 393.2. The launch and preparation of the training program characteristic of exploration 403.3. The heart of program design: a step-by-step exploration 423.4. The transition to exploitation 493.5. Conclusion 523.6. 2017, Toward future explorations 533.7. References 53Chapter 4. A New Progress Technique in the Himalayas 55Paulo GROBEL4.1. Introduction 554.2. The Himalayan technique, a reference 554.3. The emergence of new strategies 564.4. But also, listening to the doctors’ recommendations... 574.5. “Doing it together” 574.6. Snail strategy, gentle progression, slow expedition, continuous progression? 584.6.1. Toward a name change 584.6.2. We have therefore named our strategy “progression douce” (gentle progression) 594.6.3. The gentle progression has become “the snail’s strategy” 594.6.4. The snail strategy has been transformed into a slow expedition 604.6.5. Slow expedition now becomes continuous progress 604.7. Not to conclude.... 60Section 3. Toward an Extreme Ethnography 63Chapter 5. Some Methodological Considerations in Relation to the Objects Involved 65Mondher KILANIChapter 6. Ethnography of the Extreme: Epistemological and Methodological Issues of the Use of Video 75Géraldine RIX-LIÈVRE6.1. Introduction 756.2. An involved and involving ethnography 776.3. Interests and limitations of the use of video in the production of materials 796.4. Video, a modality of ethnographic writing 816.5. Video, for an ethnography of activity 836.6. References 88Part 2. Creativity and Organizational Reliability 91Section 4. Organizational Creativity 93Chapter 7. Management of a Crisis Situation in a Large Video Game Studio 95Patrick COHENDET and Laurent SIMON7.1. Introduction 957.2. A creativity crisis at Ubisoft’s studio 967.3. Management of a major crisis 997.3.1. Bisociation 997.3.2. The recomposition of routines by a sequence of bisociations 1017.4. Conclusion 1037.5. References 103Chapter 8. Organizing Innovative Design or How to Remain an Explorer: The Case of Creaholic 105Gilles GAREL8.1. Introduction 1058.2. Innovative design and ambidextry 1068.2.1. Forms of ambidexterity 1078.2.2. Ambidextrous relationships 1098.3. The case of Creaholic, an innovative design company 1108.3.1. Creaholic, an IDE that produces repeated innovation 1108.3.2. A relevant governance structure 1128.4. Discussion and conclusion: the IDE and a return to exploitation 1168.5. References 119Section 5. Creativity under Constraint 121Chapter 9. Creativity under Constraint: A Management Sciences Perspective 123Guy PARMENTIER9.1. Introduction 1239.2. The different types of constraints and their actions 1249.3. Internal design and cognitive constraints 1259.4. Situational time and resource constraints 1279.5. Border constraints 1299.6. The construction of the sense of constraints 1309.7. Organizational climate 1319.8. Conclusion 1339.9. References 133Chapter 10. Creativity for Extreme Situations 139Samira BOURGEOIS-BOUGRINE and Todd LUBART10.1. Introduction 13910.2. Introduction to creativity 14010.2.1. Definition of creativity 14010.2.2. Creative processes 14110.3. Creativity and risk management 14310.3.1. Creativity, insight and intuition when making decisions in extreme situations 14410.3.2. Creativity and daily risk management 14710.4. Creativity for anticipating extreme situations 14810.4.1. What can we learn from fiction writers? 14910.4.2. Co-creativity in a virtual environment 15110.5. Conclusion 15310.6. References 154Section 6. Organizational Reliability 159Chapter 11. Scope and Limits of Extreme Situations for Highly Reliable Organizations: A Pragmatic Interpretation 161Benoît JOURNÉ11.1. Introduction 16111.2. The growing interest in extreme situations 16111.3. The pragmatist approach to situations 16211.4. HROs: keeping extreme situations under control 16311.5. The mutual influence of situations and organization: between normality and extremity 16411.6. Extremity traps and extreme situations 16511.7. Conditions for a contribution of extreme situations to the knowledge of situations and organizations 16611.8. References 167Chapter 12. Error in Decision-Making Processes in Operational Situations: The Case of Fire Rescue Organizations 169Anaïs GAUTIER12.1. Introduction 16912.2. The study of ordinary situations in codified activities for decision making 17012.2.1. Extreme and unique contexts of at-risk organizations 17012.2.2. Situation awareness theory to understand the cognitive process of actors 17112.2.3. Reasoning error for a cognitive approach 17112.3. Action-research methodology for analysing decision making in situations 17212.4. The case of the organization of rescue operations in forest firefighting operations: the management of cross-border operations 17412.4.1. Definition of the extreme context of the forest firefighting operation 17412.4.2. Application of situation awareness theory to the identification of the decision-making process 17512.5. Perception of error as a practice for learning 17712.6. References 178Part 3. Register of the Intelligibility of Extreme Management Situations 181Section 7. Meaning and Sensemaking 183Chapter 13. Going to Extreme Situations: What Meaning Should be Given to Such a Project? 185Jean-Pierre BOUTINET13.1. Introduction 18513.2. Why go on a journey or an expedition? 18613.3. The unavoidable concern of the quest for meaning 18713.4. The project approach that generates meaning 18813.5. The meaning of a project for its stakeholders: author and actors 19013.6. The uncertainties linked to the project when thinking about extreme situations 19213.7. What meaning should be given to the willingness to undertake the project? 19313.7.1. Where can we go? 19313.7.2. Why leave? 19413.7.3. What significant opportunities dictate the current situation? 19513.7.4. How does my current questioning resonate with my personal history? 19613.7.5. Whom to carry out a project with? 19713.8. To start a project, the art of steering a boat 19813.9. References 200Chapter 14. Sense, Sensitivity and Competence 201Michel RÉCOPÉ14.1. Introduction 20114.2. Norms, actions and cognitive activity 20214.3. Meaning or sense? 20314.4. Proposal for “common sense” 20414.5. “Sensitivity to” and practical rationality 20614.6. “Sensitivity to” and structured activity 20814.7. “Sensitivity to” and competence 21014.8. What about extreme situations according to this approach? 21014.9. References 211Chapter 15. A Sea Kayaker’s Identity Route and Learning Experience in the Arctic 215Pascal CROSET15.1. Genesis 21515.2. 2007: the initiation 21615.3. 2008: the road to autonomy 21615.4. 2009: fraternity 21815.5. 2010: learning about limits, and the need for sharing 21915.6. 2011: the discovery of a new territory 22015.7. 2012: teaming up with a (nearly) unknown person 22115.8. 2013: filiation (1) 22215.9. 2014: the parallel world 22315.10. 2015: filiation (2) 22415.11. 2016: filiation (3) between adults 22515.12. 2017: serenity and satisfaction 22515.13. Knowledge and self-improvement, more than an identity journey 22615.14. Putting everything into perspective 22715.15. Conclusion 228Section 8. Organizational Ambidexterity 229Chapter 16. Organizational Ambidexterity: The Double Organic Ambidexterity 231Monique AUBRY16.1. Summary 23116.2. Double ambidexterity: an essential skill of the project manager 23216.3. From polar expedition to organizational change 23216.4. Methodological aspects 23416.5. Identifying mode changes: transitions 23416.5.1. Case A 23516.5.2. Case B 23516.5.3. Case C 23516.6. Organic ambidexterity as a meta-competency 23616.7. Conclusion 23716.8. Acknowledgments 23816.9. Appendix: changes in mode of action in all three cases 23916.10. References 240Chapter 17. Radical Change in an Extreme Context: Mountaineers Conquering the Darwin Cordillera in Patagonia 243Geneviève MUSCA17.1 Introduction 24317.2. The episode of radical change 24417.3. Implementation of a radical change in an extreme context 24617.4. Methodology 24717.5. The implementation of radical change: from boat to bags 24817.6. References 250Section 9. The Expansion of Knowledge 253Chapter 18. A Knowledge Corpus and Innovation 255Jean-Louis ERMINE and Pierre SAULAIS18.1. Creativity is not only based on imagination 25518.2. The use of existing knowledge to improve creativity 25818.3. Case study: a creative process based on knowledge in Thales Air Systems 26018.3.1. The creative environment 26018.3.2. The creative process based on knowledge 26318.4. Lessons learned and conditions for success 26718.5. Appendix 26818.6. References 270Chapter 19. Community of Practice, Variation of Knowledge and Change in Extreme Management Situations 273Jean-Philippe BOOTZ and Olivier DUPOUËT19.1. Introduction 27319.2 Emerging change and knowledge variation through spontaneous CoPs 27419.2.1. Change as an emerging process 27419.2.2. CoPs as a mechanism for developing and modifying practices 27519.3. Change leads to constellations of communities 27619.3.1. Knowledge variation and change within communities of practice 27619.3.2. Propagation and combinations of variations in a constellation of communities 27719.4. Induced change, knowledge expansion and pilot communities of practice 27919.4.1. Leading change through managed communities of practice: a tension of self-organization/control 28019.4.2. PCoPs and knowledge expansion: exploration and exploitation 28219.5. Conclusion 28519.6. References 285Chapter 20. Expanding Knowledge and Mobilizing Social Networks 289Marc LECOUTRE20.1. Introduction 28920.2. Innovation, network and knowledge expansion 29020.3. Expanding knowledge: two examples in uncertain and risky situations 29020.3.1. An example of the acquisition of scientific knowledge during the preparation for a polar expedition 29120.3.2. An example of experiential learning: the crossing of Spitsbergen by a team of young students with little experience 29120.4. The contributions of the two streams of research in social network theory 29220.4.1. The approach by distinguishing ties according to their strength (Granovetter 1973) 29220.4.2. The structural approach 29420.5. Feedback and questions on these approaches 29520.5.1. First question: the nature of the tie 29520.5.2. Second question: the nature of knowledge 29620.5.3. Third question: the nature of the process 29720.6. The question of the nature of ties the notion of a “potentially strong” weak tie 29820.7. Conclusion: relational network and process of knowledge expansion 30020.8. References 301Chapter 21. The Crowd and the Expansion of Knowledge 305Claude GUITTARD and Éric SCHENK21.1. Introduction 30521.2. The crowds and knowledge 30621.2.1. The crowd, the company and the market 30621.2.2. The factors of crowd irrationality 30621.3. Crowds and the media 30921.4. The new visions of the crowd 31021.5. Internet: towards a wise crowd? 31121.6. Crowds and knowledge expansion: crowdsourcing 31221.6.1. The different types of crowdsourcing 31221.6.2. Crowdsourcing and knowledge expansion 31721.7. Conclusion 31921.8. References 320Part 4 The Variety of Extreme Situations and Disciplinary Perspectives 323Section 10. The Variety of Extreme Situations 325Chapter 22. The Routines of Creation: From Artistic Direction to Collective Exploration 327David MASSÉ22.1. Introduction 32722.2. Three training schemes in the creative industries 32822.2.1. Guy Laliberté and the transformation of athletes into artists at Cirque du Soleil 32822.2.2. Serge Hascoët and game design training at Ubisoft 32922.2.3. Bartabas and the Académie du spectacle équestre de Versailles 32922.3. The routines of creation: from artistic direction to the collective exploration of talents 33022.3.1. Macro-routines: the “direction” links given by the creator 33122.3.2. Micro-routines: exploration spaces for talent 33322.4. Conclusion 33522.4.1. Trick 1: highlighting practice in transmission 33622.4.2. Trick 2: fostering accommodation through the reduction of feedback 33622.4.3. Trick 3: creating an environment conducive to uncertainty 33722.5. References 337Chapter 23. The Young Researcher Program for Extreme Situations 339Christelle BARON, Emmanuel BONNET, Stéphane CELLIER-COURTIL, Nicolas LAROCHE and Isabelle MAGNE23.1. Introduction 33923.2. What is a power that promotes the emergence of potential action among actors in situations of uncertainty? 34023.3. The terms of engagement and the processes for regulating collective action in the context of the liberated company: the case of Crédit Agricole Centre Loire 34123.4. The rules of the game of an epistemic community 34223.5. Constructing action knowledge for a wealth management advisor 34323.6. Rethinking logistics from knowledge flows 34423.7. Conclusion 34523.8. References 346Section 11. Disciplinary Perspectives 351Chapter 24. Knowledge Transfer and Learning in Extreme Situations: The Psychologist’s Vision 353Jean-Claude COULET24.1. Introduction 35324.2. Knowledge transfer: a questionable notion 35424.2.1. The notions of knowledge 35424.2.2. The development of knowledge 35524.3. Learning: theoretical considerations 35724.3.1. A modeling of skills 35724.3.2. Forms of learning 35924.4 Collective skills, learning and strategic management 36024.4.1. Knowledge in practice 36024.4.2. The hierarchy of skills 36124.4.3. The articulation between individual and collective skills 36124.5. Conclusion 36324.6. References 364Chapter 25. Expeditions as a Legitimate Object in Management Sciences 367Linda ROULEAU25.1. Introduction 36725.2. Expeditions as “legitimate objects”? 36825.3 Generalization, rigor and relevance in articles in peer-reviewed journals dealing with expeditions 37025.4. Challenges of producing “legitimate” knowledge from the expedition as an empirical object 37325.5. References 375Conclusion 377Gilles GAREL, Monique AUBRY and Pascal LIÈVREList of Authors 385Index 389

Pascal Lièvre is Professor in Management Sciences at Clermont Auvergne University, France.Monique Aubry is Professor of Project Management at the Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada.Gilles Garel is Professor of Innovation Management at the National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts, France.

• Preface xviiCerisy Symposiums. Selection of Publications xxiIntroduction xxvPart 1. Exploration and the Extreme 1Section 1. The Logic of Exploration 3Chapter 1. An Exemplary Exploration Story: Nansen’s Expedition to the North Pole 5Pascal LIÈVRE1.1. Introduction 51.2. A project that makes “sense” because it is consistent with an identity-based learning trajectory 71.3. A radical dual ambidextrous capacity 91.3.1. Planning 101.3.2. Adaptation 111.3.3. Exploration 121.3.4. Exploitation 121.4. A dynamic of knowledge expansion in terms of an epistemic community 131.4.1. The Intention 141.4.2. The spark 151.4.3. The manifesto 151.4.4. Various experts who formed a community around the project 151.4.5. A continuous increase in implementing knowledge 161.5. Conclusion 161.6. References 17Chapter 2. Project Management in Extreme Situations: The Manhattan Case 21Sylvain LENFLE2.1. Introduction 212.2. The origins of the Manhattan project 222.3. Exploring the unknown 232.4. The Manhattan Project organization 262.5. Project management as sensemaking 292.6. The expansive legacy of the Manhattan project and the limit of the metaphor 322.7. References 34Section 2. Exploration Testimonies 37Chapter 3. Exploration, the Common Theme of a Training System on Innovation 39Bruno STÉVENIN and Éric DÉPRAETERE3.1. The initial context at the origin of the adventure 393.2. The launch and preparation of the training program characteristic of exploration 403.3. The heart of program design: a step-by-step exploration 423.4. The transition to exploitation 493.5. Conclusion 523.6. 2017, Toward future explorations 533.7. References 53Chapter 4. A New Progress Technique in the Himalayas 55Paulo GROBEL4.1. Introduction 554.2. The Himalayan technique, a reference 554.3. The emergence of new strategies 564.4. But also, listening to the doctors’ recommendations... 574.5. “Doing it together” 574.6. Snail strategy, gentle progression, slow expedition, continuous progression? 584.6.1. Toward a name change 584.6.2. We have therefore named our strategy “progression douce” (gentle progression) 594.6.3. The gentle progression has become “the snail’s strategy” 594.6.4. The snail strategy has been transformed into a slow expedition 604.6.5. Slow expedition now becomes continuous progress 604.7. Not to conclude.... 60Section 3. Toward an Extreme Ethnography 63Chapter 5. Some Methodological Considerations in Relation to the Objects Involved 65Mondher KILANIChapter 6. Ethnography of the Extreme: Epistemological and Methodological Issues of the Use of Video 75Géraldine RIX-LIÈVRE6.1. Introduction 756.2. An involved and involving ethnography 776.3. Interests and limitations of the use of video in the production of materials 796.4. Video, a modality of ethnographic writing 816.5. Video, for an ethnography of activity 836.6. References 88Part 2. Creativity and Organizational Reliability 91Section 4. Organizational Creativity 93Chapter 7. Management of a Crisis Situation in a Large Video Game Studio 95Patrick COHENDET and Laurent SIMON7.1. Introduction 957.2. A creativity crisis at Ubisoft’s studio 967.3. Management of a major crisis 997.3.1. Bisociation 997.3.2. The recomposition of routines by a sequence of bisociations 1017.4. Conclusion 1037.5. References 103Chapter 8. Organizing Innovative Design or How to Remain an Explorer: The Case of Creaholic 105Gilles GAREL8.1. Introduction 1058.2. Innovative design and ambidextry 1068.2.1. Forms of ambidexterity 1078.2.2. Ambidextrous relationships 1098.3. The case of Creaholic, an innovative design company 1108.3.1. Creaholic, an IDE that produces repeated innovation 1108.3.2. A relevant governance structure 1128.4. Discussion and conclusion: the IDE and a return to exploitation 1168.5. References 119Section 5. Creativity under Constraint 121Chapter 9. Creativity under Constraint: A Management Sciences Perspective 123Guy PARMENTIER9.1. Introduction 1239.2. The different types of constraints and their actions 1249.3. Internal design and cognitive constraints 1259.4. Situational time and resource constraints 1279.5. Border constraints 1299.6. The construction of the sense of constraints 1309.7. Organizational climate 1319.8. Conclusion 1339.9. References 133Chapter 10. Creativity for Extreme Situations 139Samira BOURGEOIS-BOUGRINE and Todd LUBART10.1. Introduction 13910.2. Introduction to creativity 14010.2.1. Definition of creativity 14010.2.2. Creative processes 14110.3. Creativity and risk management 14310.3.1. Creativity, insight and intuition when making decisions in extreme situations 14410.3.2. Creativity and daily risk management 14710.4. Creativity for anticipating extreme situations 14810.4.1. What can we learn from fiction writers? 14910.4.2. Co-creativity in a virtual environment 15110.5. Conclusion 15310.6. References 154Section 6. Organizational Reliability 159Chapter 11. Scope and Limits of Extreme Situations for Highly Reliable Organizations: A Pragmatic Interpretation 161Benoît JOURNÉ11.1. Introduction 16111.2. The growing interest in extreme situations 16111.3. The pragmatist approach to situations 16211.4. HROs: keeping extreme situations under control 16311.5. The mutual influence of situations and organization: between normality and extremity 16411.6. Extremity traps and extreme situations 16511.7. Conditions for a contribution of extreme situations to the knowledge of situations and organizations 16611.8. References 167Chapter 12. Error in Decision-Making Processes in Operational Situations: The Case of Fire Rescue Organizations 169Anaïs GAUTIER12.1. Introduction 16912.2. The study of ordinary situations in codified activities for decision making 17012.2.1. Extreme and unique contexts of at-risk organizations 17012.2.2. Situation awareness theory to understand the cognitive process of actors 17112.2.3. Reasoning error for a cognitive approach 17112.3. Action-research methodology for analysing decision making in situations 17212.4. The case of the organization of rescue operations in forest firefighting operations: the management of cross-border operations 17412.4.1. Definition of the extreme context of the forest firefighting operation 17412.4.2. Application of situation awareness theory to the identification of the decision-making process 17512.5. Perception of error as a practice for learning 17712.6. References 178Part 3. Register of the Intelligibility of Extreme Management Situations 181Section 7. Meaning and Sensemaking 183Chapter 13. Going to Extreme Situations: What Meaning Should be Given to Such a Project? 185Jean-Pierre BOUTINET13.1. Introduction 18513.2. Why go on a journey or an expedition? 18613.3. The unavoidable concern of the quest for meaning 18713.4. The project approach that generates meaning 18813.5. The meaning of a project for its stakeholders: author and actors 19013.6. The uncertainties linked to the project when thinking about extreme situations 19213.7. What meaning should be given to the willingness to undertake the project? 19313.7.1. Where can we go? 19313.7.2. Why leave? 19413.7.3. What significant opportunities dictate the current situation? 19513.7.4. How does my current questioning resonate with my personal history? 19613.7.5. Whom to carry out a project with? 19713.8. To start a project, the art of steering a boat 19813.9. References 200Chapter 14. Sense, Sensitivity and Competence 201Michel RÉCOPÉ14.1. Introduction 20114.2. Norms, actions and cognitive activity 20214.3. Meaning or sense? 20314.4. Proposal for “common sense” 20414.5. “Sensitivity to” and practical rationality 20614.6. “Sensitivity to” and structured activity 20814.7. “Sensitivity to” and competence 21014.8. What about extreme situations according to this approach? 21014.9. References 211Chapter 15. A Sea Kayaker’s Identity Route and Learning Experience in the Arctic 215Pascal CROSET15.1. Genesis 21515.2. 2007: the initiation 21615.3. 2008: the road to autonomy 21615.4. 2009: fraternity 21815.5. 2010: learning about limits, and the need for sharing 21915.6. 2011: the discovery of a new territory 22015.7. 2012: teaming up with a (nearly) unknown person 22115.8. 2013: filiation (1) 22215.9. 2014: the parallel world 22315.10. 2015: filiation (2) 22415.11. 2016: filiation (3) between adults 22515.12. 2017: serenity and satisfaction 22515.13. Knowledge and self-improvement, more than an identity journey 22615.14. Putting everything into perspective 22715.15. Conclusion 228Section 8. Organizational Ambidexterity 229Chapter 16. Organizational Ambidexterity: The Double Organic Ambidexterity 231Monique AUBRY16.1. Summary 23116.2. Double ambidexterity: an essential skill of the project manager 23216.3. From polar expedition to organizational change 23216.4. Methodological aspects 23416.5. Identifying mode changes: transitions 23416.5.1. Case A 23516.5.2. Case B 23516.5.3. Case C 23516.6. Organic ambidexterity as a meta-competency 23616.7. Conclusion 23716.8. Acknowledgments 23816.9. Appendix: changes in mode of action in all three cases 23916.10. References 240Chapter 17. Radical Change in an Extreme Context: Mountaineers Conquering the Darwin Cordillera in Patagonia 243Geneviève MUSCA17.1 Introduction 24317.2. The episode of radical change 24417.3. Implementation of a radical change in an extreme context 24617.4. Methodology 24717.5. The implementation of radical change: from boat to bags 24817.6. References 250Section 9. The Expansion of Knowledge 253Chapter 18. A Knowledge Corpus and Innovation 255Jean-Louis ERMINE and Pierre SAULAIS18.1. Creativity is not only based on imagination 25518.2. The use of existing knowledge to improve creativity 25818.3. Case study: a creative process based on knowledge in Thales Air Systems 26018.3.1. The creative environment 26018.3.2. The creative process based on knowledge 26318.4. Lessons learned and conditions for success 26718.5. Appendix 26818.6. References 270Chapter 19. Community of Practice, Variation of Knowledge and Change in Extreme Management Situations 273Jean-Philippe BOOTZ and Olivier DUPOUËT19.1. Introduction 27319.2 Emerging change and knowledge variation through spontaneous CoPs 27419.2.1. Change as an emerging process 27419.2.2. CoPs as a mechanism for developing and modifying practices 27519.3. Change leads to constellations of communities 27619.3.1. Knowledge variation and change within communities of practice 27619.3.2. Propagation and combinations of variations in a constellation of communities 27719.4. Induced change, knowledge expansion and pilot communities of practice 27919.4.1. Leading change through managed communities of practice: a tension of self-organization/control 28019.4.2. PCoPs and knowledge expansion: exploration and exploitation 28219.5. Conclusion 28519.6. References 285Chapter 20. Expanding Knowledge and Mobilizing Social Networks 289Marc LECOUTRE20.1. Introduction 28920.2. Innovation, network and knowledge expansion 29020.3. Expanding knowledge: two examples in uncertain and risky situations 29020.3.1. An example of the acquisition of scientific knowledge during the preparation for a polar expedition 29120.3.2. An example of experiential learning: the crossing of Spitsbergen by a team of young students with little experience 29120.4. The contributions of the two streams of research in social network theory 29220.4.1. The approach by distinguishing ties according to their strength (Granovetter 1973) 29220.4.2. The structural approach 29420.5. Feedback and questions on these approaches 29520.5.1. First question: the nature of the tie 29520.5.2. Second question: the nature of knowledge 29620.5.3. Third question: the nature of the process 29720.6. The question of the nature of ties the notion of a “potentially strong” weak tie 29820.7. Conclusion: relational network and process of knowledge expansion 30020.8. References 301Chapter 21. The Crowd and the Expansion of Knowledge 305Claude GUITTARD and Éric SCHENK21.1. Introduction 30521.2. The crowds and knowledge 30621.2.1. The crowd, the company and the market 30621.2.2. The factors of crowd irrationality 30621.3. Crowds and the media 30921.4. The new visions of the crowd 31021.5. Internet: towards a wise crowd? 31121.6. Crowds and knowledge expansion: crowdsourcing 31221.6.1. The different types of crowdsourcing 31221.6.2. Crowdsourcing and knowledge expansion 31721.7. Conclusion 31921.8. References 320Part 4 The Variety of Extreme Situations and Disciplinary Perspectives 323Section 10. The Variety of Extreme Situations 325Chapter 22. The Routines of Creation: From Artistic Direction to Collective Exploration 327David MASSÉ22.1. Introduction 32722.2. Three training schemes in the creative industries 32822.2.1. Guy Laliberté and the transformation of athletes into artists at Cirque du Soleil 32822.2.2. Serge Hascoët and game design training at Ubisoft 32922.2.3. Bartabas and the Académie du spectacle équestre de Versailles 32922.3. The routines of creation: from artistic direction to the collective exploration of talents 33022.3.1. Macro-routines: the “direction” links given by the creator 33122.3.2. Micro-routines: exploration spaces for talent 33322.4. Conclusion 33522.4.1. Trick 1: highlighting practice in transmission 33622.4.2. Trick 2: fostering accommodation through the reduction of feedback 33622.4.3. Trick 3: creating an environment conducive to uncertainty 33722.5. References 337Chapter 23. The Young Researcher Program for Extreme Situations 339Christelle BARON, Emmanuel BONNET, Stéphane CELLIER-COURTIL, Nicolas LAROCHE and Isabelle MAGNE23.1. Introduction 33923.2. What is a power that promotes the emergence of potential action among actors in situations of uncertainty? 34023.3. The terms of engagement and the processes for regulating collective action in the context of the liberated company: the case of Crédit Agricole Centre Loire 34123.4. The rules of the game of an epistemic community 34223.5. Constructing action knowledge for a wealth management advisor 34323.6. Rethinking logistics from knowledge flows 34423.7. Conclusion 34523.8. References 346Section 11. Disciplinary Perspectives 351Chapter 24. Knowledge Transfer and Learning in Extreme Situations: The Psychologist’s Vision 353Jean-Claude COULET24.1. Introduction 35324.2. Knowledge transfer: a questionable notion 35424.2.1. The notions of knowledge 35424.2.2. The development of knowledge 35524.3. Learning: theoretical considerations 35724.3.1. A modeling of skills 35724.3.2. Forms of learning 35924.4 Collective skills, learning and strategic management 36024.4.1. Knowledge in practice 36024.4.2. The hierarchy of skills 36124.4.3. The articulation between individual and collective skills 36124.5. Conclusion 36324.6. References 364Chapter 25. Expeditions as a Legitimate Object in Management Sciences 367Linda ROULEAU25.1. Introduction 36725.2. Expeditions as “legitimate objects”? 36825.3 Generalization, rigor and relevance in articles in peer-reviewed journals dealing with expeditions 37025.4. Challenges of producing “legitimate” knowledge from the expedition as an empirical object 37325.5. References 375Conclusion 377Gilles GAREL, Monique AUBRY and Pascal LIÈVREList of Authors 385Index 389