Rabeb Ben Kahla is a Mechanical Engineering PhD student at the National Engineering School of Tunis, Tunisia. She conducts research at LASMAP (Research Laboratory of Systems and Applied Mechanics).Abdelwahed Barkaoui is Associate Professor in Mechanical Engineering at the International University of Rabat, Morocco. His research interests mainly focus on biomechanics, mechanobiology and biomedical engineering.Tarek Merzouki is Associate Professor at Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, France. His work encompasses the mechanics of materials, finite element methods, multiphysical coupling and structural mechanics.

• Introduction ixChapter 1. Main Medical Imaging Techniques 11.1. Introduction 11.2. X-ray imaging 21.2.1. Definition of X-rays 21.2.2. X-ray instrumentation and generation 41.2.3. Applications of X-ray imaging 71.2.4. Advantages and disadvantages of X-ray imaging 141.3. Computed tomography 141.3.1. Description of the technique 151.3.2. Development of computed tomography 161.3.3. Instrumentation 171.3.4. Applications 221.3.5. Advantages and disadvantages of computed tomography 251.4. Magnetic resonance imaging 251.4.1. Instrumentation 261.4.2. Generation of the resonance effect 271.4.3. Relaxation and contrast 301.4.4. Applications of magnetic resonance imaging 331.4.5. Advantages and disadvantages of magnetic resonance imaging 361.5. Ultrasound imaging 361.5.1. Definition of ultrasound 361.5.2. Development of ultrasound imaging 371.5.3. Generation of ultrasound 381.5.4. Transducers 391.5.5. Applications of ultrasound techniques 421.5.6. Advantages and disadvantages of ultrasound imaging 471.6. Comparison between the different medical imaging techniques 471.7. Conclusion 48Chapter 2. Medical Image Analysis and Processing 492.1. Introduction 492.2. Image compression 492.3. Image restoration 502.4. Image enhancement 502.4.1. Window and level 512.4.2. Gamma correction 512.4.3. Histogram equalization 522.4.4. Image subtraction 522.4.5. Spatial filtering 522.5. Image analysis 532.5.1. Texture features 532.5.2. Edges and boundaries 552.5.3. Shape and structure 572.6. Image segmentation 582.6.1. Simple methods of image segmentation 582.6.2. Active contour segmentation 602.6.3. Variational methods 612.6.4. Level set methods 622.6.5. Active shape and active appearance models 622.6.6. Graph cut segmentation 632.6.7. Atlas-based segmentation 632.6.8. Deformable model-based segmentation 652.6.9. Energy minimization-based segmentation 652.6.10. Learning-based segmentation 652.6.11. Other approaches 662.7. Image registration 662.7.1. Dimensionality 672.7.2. Nature of the registration basis 682.7.3. Nature of the transformation 692.7.4. Transformation domain 702.7.5. Interaction 712.7.6. Optimization procedure 722.7.7. Modalities involved 722.7.8. Subject 732.7.9. Object 742.8. Image fusion 742.8.1. Pixel fusion methods 742.8.2. Subspace methods 752.8.3. Multi-scale methods 752.8.4. Ensemble learning techniques 752.8.5. Simultaneous truth and performance level estimation 762.9. Image understanding 762.10. Conclusion 76Chapter 3. Recent Methods of Constructing Finite Element Models Based on Medical Images 793.1. Introduction 793.2. X-ray-based finite element models 793.3. CT-based finite element models 893.4. MRI-based finite element models 1173.5. Ultrasound-based finite element models 1213.6. Conclusion 124Chapter 4. Main Bone Sites Modeled Using the Finite Element Method 1254.1. Introduction 1254.2. FE modeling of the calcaneus 1254.3. FE modeling of phalanges 1274.4. FE modeling of the metatarsal 1294.5. FE modeling of the tibia 1314.6. FE modeling of the knee 1374.7. FE modeling of the femur 1404.8. FE modeling of the vertebrae 1434.9. FE modeling of the humerus 1474.10. FE modeling of the elbow 1494.11. FE modeling of the ulna 1494.12. FE modeling of the wrist 1504.13. Conclusion 152Conclusion 153References 155Index 179

Rabeb Ben Kahla is a Mechanical Engineering PhD student at the National Engineering School of Tunis, Tunisia. She conducts research at LASMAP (Research Laboratory of Systems and Applied Mechanics).Abdelwahed Barkaoui is Associate Professor in Mechanical Engineering at the International University of Rabat, Morocco. His research interests mainly focus on biomechanics, mechanobiology and biomedical engineering.Tarek Merzouki is Associate Professor at Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, France. His work encompasses the mechanics of materials, finite element methods, multiphysical coupling and structural mechanics.

• Introduction ixChapter 1. Main Medical Imaging Techniques 11.1. Introduction 11.2. X-ray imaging 21.2.1. Definition of X-rays 21.2.2. X-ray instrumentation and generation 41.2.3. Applications of X-ray imaging 71.2.4. Advantages and disadvantages of X-ray imaging 141.3. Computed tomography 141.3.1. Description of the technique 151.3.2. Development of computed tomography 161.3.3. Instrumentation 171.3.4. Applications 221.3.5. Advantages and disadvantages of computed tomography 251.4. Magnetic resonance imaging 251.4.1. Instrumentation 261.4.2. Generation of the resonance effect 271.4.3. Relaxation and contrast 301.4.4. Applications of magnetic resonance imaging 331.4.5. Advantages and disadvantages of magnetic resonance imaging 361.5. Ultrasound imaging 361.5.1. Definition of ultrasound 361.5.2. Development of ultrasound imaging 371.5.3. Generation of ultrasound 381.5.4. Transducers 391.5.5. Applications of ultrasound techniques 421.5.6. Advantages and disadvantages of ultrasound imaging 471.6. Comparison between the different medical imaging techniques 471.7. Conclusion 48Chapter 2. Medical Image Analysis and Processing 492.1. Introduction 492.2. Image compression 492.3. Image restoration 502.4. Image enhancement 502.4.1. Window and level 512.4.2. Gamma correction 512.4.3. Histogram equalization 522.4.4. Image subtraction 522.4.5. Spatial filtering 522.5. Image analysis 532.5.1. Texture features 532.5.2. Edges and boundaries 552.5.3. Shape and structure 572.6. Image segmentation 582.6.1. Simple methods of image segmentation 582.6.2. Active contour segmentation 602.6.3. Variational methods 612.6.4. Level set methods 622.6.5. Active shape and active appearance models 622.6.6. Graph cut segmentation 632.6.7. Atlas-based segmentation 632.6.8. Deformable model-based segmentation 652.6.9. Energy minimization-based segmentation 652.6.10. Learning-based segmentation 652.6.11. Other approaches 662.7. Image registration 662.7.1. Dimensionality 672.7.2. Nature of the registration basis 682.7.3. Nature of the transformation 692.7.4. Transformation domain 702.7.5. Interaction 712.7.6. Optimization procedure 722.7.7. Modalities involved 722.7.8. Subject 732.7.9. Object 742.8. Image fusion 742.8.1. Pixel fusion methods 742.8.2. Subspace methods 752.8.3. Multi-scale methods 752.8.4. Ensemble learning techniques 752.8.5. Simultaneous truth and performance level estimation 762.9. Image understanding 762.10. Conclusion 76Chapter 3. Recent Methods of Constructing Finite Element Models Based on Medical Images 793.1. Introduction 793.2. X-ray-based finite element models 793.3. CT-based finite element models 893.4. MRI-based finite element models 1173.5. Ultrasound-based finite element models 1213.6. Conclusion 124Chapter 4. Main Bone Sites Modeled Using the Finite Element Method 1254.1. Introduction 1254.2. FE modeling of the calcaneus 1254.3. FE modeling of phalanges 1274.4. FE modeling of the metatarsal 1294.5. FE modeling of the tibia 1314.6. FE modeling of the knee 1374.7. FE modeling of the femur 1404.8. FE modeling of the vertebrae 1434.9. FE modeling of the humerus 1474.10. FE modeling of the elbow 1494.11. FE modeling of the ulna 1494.12. FE modeling of the wrist 1504.13. Conclusion 152Conclusion 153References 155Index 179

Rabeb Ben Kahla is a Mechanical Engineering PhD student at the National Engineering School of Tunis, Tunisia. She conducts research at LASMAP (Research Laboratory of Systems and Applied Mechanics).Abdelwahed Barkaoui is Associate Professor in Mechanical Engineering at the International University of Rabat, Morocco. His research interests mainly focus on biomechanics, mechanobiology and biomedical engineering.Tarek Merzouki is Associate Professor at Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, France. His work encompasses the mechanics of materials, finite element methods, multiphysical coupling and structural mechanics.

• Introduction ixChapter 1. Main Medical Imaging Techniques 11.1. Introduction 11.2. X-ray imaging 21.2.1. Definition of X-rays 21.2.2. X-ray instrumentation and generation 41.2.3. Applications of X-ray imaging 71.2.4. Advantages and disadvantages of X-ray imaging 141.3. Computed tomography 141.3.1. Description of the technique 151.3.2. Development of computed tomography 161.3.3. Instrumentation 171.3.4. Applications 221.3.5. Advantages and disadvantages of computed tomography 251.4. Magnetic resonance imaging 251.4.1. Instrumentation 261.4.2. Generation of the resonance effect 271.4.3. Relaxation and contrast 301.4.4. Applications of magnetic resonance imaging 331.4.5. Advantages and disadvantages of magnetic resonance imaging 361.5. Ultrasound imaging 361.5.1. Definition of ultrasound 361.5.2. Development of ultrasound imaging 371.5.3. Generation of ultrasound 381.5.4. Transducers 391.5.5. Applications of ultrasound techniques 421.5.6. Advantages and disadvantages of ultrasound imaging 471.6. Comparison between the different medical imaging techniques 471.7. Conclusion 48Chapter 2. Medical Image Analysis and Processing 492.1. Introduction 492.2. Image compression 492.3. Image restoration 502.4. Image enhancement 502.4.1. Window and level 512.4.2. Gamma correction 512.4.3. Histogram equalization 522.4.4. Image subtraction 522.4.5. Spatial filtering 522.5. Image analysis 532.5.1. Texture features 532.5.2. Edges and boundaries 552.5.3. Shape and structure 572.6. Image segmentation 582.6.1. Simple methods of image segmentation 582.6.2. Active contour segmentation 602.6.3. Variational methods 612.6.4. Level set methods 622.6.5. Active shape and active appearance models 622.6.6. Graph cut segmentation 632.6.7. Atlas-based segmentation 632.6.8. Deformable model-based segmentation 652.6.9. Energy minimization-based segmentation 652.6.10. Learning-based segmentation 652.6.11. Other approaches 662.7. Image registration 662.7.1. Dimensionality 672.7.2. Nature of the registration basis 682.7.3. Nature of the transformation 692.7.4. Transformation domain 702.7.5. Interaction 712.7.6. Optimization procedure 722.7.7. Modalities involved 722.7.8. Subject 732.7.9. Object 742.8. Image fusion 742.8.1. Pixel fusion methods 742.8.2. Subspace methods 752.8.3. Multi-scale methods 752.8.4. Ensemble learning techniques 752.8.5. Simultaneous truth and performance level estimation 762.9. Image understanding 762.10. Conclusion 76Chapter 3. Recent Methods of Constructing Finite Element Models Based on Medical Images 793.1. Introduction 793.2. X-ray-based finite element models 793.3. CT-based finite element models 893.4. MRI-based finite element models 1173.5. Ultrasound-based finite element models 1213.6. Conclusion 124Chapter 4. Main Bone Sites Modeled Using the Finite Element Method 1254.1. Introduction 1254.2. FE modeling of the calcaneus 1254.3. FE modeling of phalanges 1274.4. FE modeling of the metatarsal 1294.5. FE modeling of the tibia 1314.6. FE modeling of the knee 1374.7. FE modeling of the femur 1404.8. FE modeling of the vertebrae 1434.9. FE modeling of the humerus 1474.10. FE modeling of the elbow 1494.11. FE modeling of the ulna 1494.12. FE modeling of the wrist 1504.13. Conclusion 152Conclusion 153References 155Index 179