Physics of the Terrestrial Environment, Subtle Matter and Height of the Atmosphere

Eric Chassefiere is a physicist and member of the SYRTE History of Astronomical Sciences Team, France. As Director of Research at the CNRS, he conducted most of his research on the study of non-terrestrial atmospheres through space observation and modeling. As a Professor at the École Polytechnique, he has led courses on the physics of the Earth and its atmosphere.

• Introduction ixChapter 1. Words Used to Describe the Atmosphere and Subtle Matter 11.1. Introduction 11.2. Air and the atmosphere 31.3. Vapors and exhalations 131.4. Coarse and subtle matters 211.5. The triptych of heat, fire and light 251.5.1. Heat 251.5.2. Fire 291.5.3. Light 311.6. Ether 351.7. Fundamental properties of air 37Chapter 2. Refractive Matter 412.1. Introduction 412.2. State of knowledge in the 17th century 422.2.1. Representations of the atmosphere in the mid-17th century 422.2.2. The atmosphere of mathematicians and refraction in the first half of the 17th century 482.2.3. Gravity and elasticity of atmospheric matter in the second half of the 17th century 502.3. Arguments for the introduction of a refractive matter other than air 542.3.1. Argument based on invalidation by the observation of the theory of refraction by vapors and exhalations 542.3.2. Argument based on the high values of horizontal refraction at high latitude 582.3.3. Argument based on the too large value of the horizontal refraction predicted by the barometric model 632.3.4. Argument based on the gap considered as too large between the refractive height and the heights determined by the other methods 642.3.5. Argument based on the judgment that the sine law implies an absurd consequence on the path of light rays 672.4. Discussion 692.4.1. Observers and refractive matter 702.4.2. Cartesians and refractive matter 732.4.3. Mathematicians and refractive matter 762.5. Conclusion 78Chapter 3. Solar Matter 813.1. Introduction 813.2. State of knowledge of the Sun in the 17th century 823.2.1. Sunspots and rotation of the Sun on its axis 823.2.2. Nature and origin of comets and their tails 873.2.3. Zodiacal light and solar atmosphere 953.2.4. The example of Hartsoeker’s model merging sunspots, comets and zodiacal light in a single representation 993.3. Solar matter and height of the atmosphere 1033.3.1. Solar atmosphere and effect on the duration of twilight 1043.3.2. Solar atmosphere and the Northern Lights 1063.4. Conclusion 118Chapter 4. Magnetic Matter 1214.1. Introduction 1214.2. Main concepts of magnetism in the 17th century 1214.2.1. Descartes’s magnet theory and Gassendi’s design 1214.2.2. Knowledge of magnetism at the turn of the 18th century 1294.3. The explanation of the aurora borealis by magnetic matter 1394.3.1. The aurora borealis of 1716 and the hypothesis of Edmond Halley 1394.3.2. The consequences of Halley’s hypothesis 1434.4. Magnetism in the second half of the 18th century 1514.5. Conclusion 157Chapter 5. Electrical Matter 1595.1. Introduction 1595.2. Highlighting the link between electricity and thunderstorm activity 1625.2.1. The first experimental advances 1625.2.2. Characterization of the natural electricity of the atmosphere 1655.3. Knowledge of the nature of electricity in the mid-18th century 1715.4. Precursory work on fiery meteors 1735.5. Explanation using electricity 1775.5.1. Early stages 1775.5.2. Theories based on electricity 1815.5.3. Controversies about the explanation by electricity 1865.6. Elucidation of the origin of fiery meteors and falling stars 1925.7. Conclusion 196Chapter 6. Subtle Air 1996.1. Introduction 1996.2. Difference in mercury heights between different barometers 2016.3. Suspension of water and mercury from the tops of inverted tubes 2036.4. Gravity theories and the impulse system 2156.5. Light barometers 2276.6. Conclusion 235Chapter 7. Results and Theories on the Height of the Atmosphere in the 18th Century 2377.1. Introduction 2377.2. Representation of the atmosphere inherited from previous centuries 2387.2.1. Representation of the atmosphere 2387.2.2. The central question of the height of the atmosphere 2417.3. Two major paradigms for the composition and vertical extension of the atmosphere in the 18th century 2447.3.1. A lower atmosphere heavily laden with vapors and exhalations 2447.3.2. An upper atmosphere extended upwards, but how far up? 2487.4. The three main inconsistencies between estimates of atmospheric height made by different methods 2537.4.1. First inconsistency: twilight duration and atmospheric refraction 2537.4.2. Second inconsistency: atmospheric refraction and air pressure 2567.4.3. Third inconsistency: air pressure and aurora borealis 2597.5. Two other methods for estimating the height of the atmosphere 2687.5.1. Fiery meteors and falling stars 2687.5.2. Projection of the Earth’s shadow during lunar eclipses 2707.6. Conclusion 270Chapter 8. Atmospheres of Earthly Bodies 2758.1. Introduction 2758.2. Porosity of bodies 2798.2.1. Boyle’s founding treaty 2798.2.2. Musschenbroek’s theory inherited from Newton 2828.2.3. Nollet’s experiments on porosity 2858.3. Atmospheres of bodies 2908.3.1. The atmosphere of solid bodies according to Boyle 2908.3.2. Mariotte’s aerial matter 2918.3.3. Nollet’s distillation experiments 2958.3.4. Atmospheres of liquid bodies and ice formation according to Perrault 2978.3.5. Béraud’s atmosphere of electric and magnetic etheric matter 2998.3.6. Marat’s igneous and luminous atmospheres 3058.4. Conclusion 318Conclusion 321References 323Index 337