Hydraulic Fracturing Explained

Erle C. Donaldson is an independent consultant and managing editor of the Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering. He was elected to the International Hall of Fame for Science in 1993. He has received a distinguished service award from the Republic of Honduras and other honors from the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Petroleum Engineering Honor Society, and the University of Oklahoma. Dr. Donaldson has written, co-authored, and served as editor on numerous articles and books. Dr. Nasrin Begum is an environmental health scientist who has evaluated environmenal risks (human health and ecological) associated with various chemicals including chemicals related to the petroleum industry. She has over 25 years of experience in toxicological and risk evaluations and has published several papers in refereed journals. She was involved in the analysis of microbial activities for improving petroleum recovery and also for decontaminating petroleum and explosive wastes. She has a Ph.D. in Environmental Health from Colorado State University and a M.S. in Plant Pathology for Oklahoma State University. She is currently working at Tetrahedron, Inc.

• DedicationForewordPreface AcknowledgmentsList of FiguresList of TablesNomenclature Acronyms/AbbreviationsSymbolsGreek LettersCHAPTER 1. Hydraulic Fracturing Explained 1.1 Introduction1.2 Petroleum Hydrocarbons1.3 Petroleum Reserves in Shale1.4 Petroleum Demand1.5 Achieving Production of Hydrocarbons to Meet Demand1.6 Hydraulic Fracturing1.7 Environmental Issues Related to Hydraulic FracturingCHAPTER 2. Evaluation of Gas-Shale Formations 2.1 Sedimentary Formations2.2 Shale Formations2.3 Multistage Fractures2.4 Fracture Design (Frac-Implementation)2.5 Well Design from Surface to Reservoir2.6 Gas-Shale Reservoir Characterization2.7 Gamma-Ray Well-Log2.8 Density/Neutron Log2.9 Use of Seismic DataCHAPTER 3. Rock Mechanics of Fracturing 3.1 Introduction3.2 Young's Modulus of Elasticity (E)3.3 Poisson's Ratio (v)3.4 Bulk Modulus (KB)3.5 Shear Modulus (G)3.6 Effective Stress3.7 Mohr Stress Diagram3.8 Initiation of Fractures3.9 Propping the Fracture OpenCHAPTER 4. Fracture Fluids 4.1 Introduction4.2 Oil-Based Fracturing Fluids4.3 Water-Based Frac-Fluids4.4 Alcohol-based Frac-fluids4.5 Acid Frac-Fluid4.6 Foams4.7 “Slick-Water”4.8 Surfactants4.9 Clay Stabilizers4.10 Temperature Stabilizers4.11 Fluid-Loss Additives4.12 Viscosity Breakers4.13 Biocides4.14 Buffers4.15 Frac-Fluid Preparation4.16 ConclusionCHAPTER 5. Field Implementation of Hydraulic Fracturing 5.1 Introduction5.2 Protecting Groundwater5.3 Waste Water Management in Hydraulic Fracture5.4 Fresh Water Management in Hydraulic Fracturing5.5 Reducing Surface Disturbance5.6 Controlling Noise, Lighting, and Traffic at Fracturing Job Sites5.7 Technical Considerations for the Success of Hydraulic Fracture Treatments5.8 Case Studies of Hydraulic FracturingCHAPTER 6. Environmental Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing 6.1 Surface and Subsurface Environmental Effects6.2 Water Withdrawals6.3 Surface Spills6.4 Wastewater Management6.5 Air Emissions6.6 Water Impoundments6.7 Human Health Impacts6.8 Where to Get Toxicity Information6.9 Chemicals Present In Hydraulic Fracturing Fluid6.10 Chemicals Present in Flow-Back Fluids6.11 Regulations for Protecting the Environment6.12 Regulations Currently ApplicableAPPENDIX A. Viscosity A.1 Power-Law FluidsAPPENDIX B. Surfactants, Emulsions, Gels, Foams B.1 SurfactantsB.2 EmulsionsB.3 FoamsAPPENDIX C. Calculations C.1 Subsurface Overburden and Horizontal StressC.2 Fracture Initiation PressureC.3 Fracture Propagation PressureC.4 Matrix PermeabilityC.5 Fracture SizeC.6 Rock Matrix Mechanical PropertiesC.7 SummaryGlossaryReferencesIndex