Riccardo Alcaro is Research Coordinator and Head of the Global Actors Programme of the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI), Italy. He has been a visiting fellow at the Center on the United States and Europe of the Brookings Institution. Riccardo holds a PhD from the University of Tuebingen.

• 1.  Introduction.-  2. The Theory: Lead groups and EU foreign policy-making.- 3.   The History: The 2003-16 Iran nuclear crisis.- 4. The Bargain: How the E3/EU came about.- 5. The Discourse: Why the E3/EU endured.- 6.   The Premise: The underneath continuity in the E3/EU Iran policy.- 7. The Action, 1: E3 leadership and EU ownership.- 8  The Action, 2: The E3/EU and the United States.- 9. The Outcome: The E3/EU as identity-shapers.- 10.  Conclusion.

Riccardo Alcaro is Research Coordinator and Head of the Global Actors Programme of the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI), Italy. He has been a visiting fellow at the Center on the United States and Europe of the Brookings Institution. Riccardo holds a PhD from the University of Tuebingen.

• 1.  Introduction.-  2. The Theory: Lead groups and EU foreign policy-making.- 3.   The History: The 2003-16 Iran nuclear crisis.- 4. The Bargain: How the E3/EU came about.- 5. The Discourse: Why the E3/EU endured.- 6.   The Premise: The underneath continuity in the E3/EU Iran policy.- 7. The Action, 1: E3 leadership and EU ownership.- 8  The Action, 2: The E3/EU and the United States.- 9. The Outcome: The E3/EU as identity-shapers.- 10.  Conclusion.

Riccardo Alcaro is Research Coordinator and Head of the Global Actors Programme of the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI), Italy. He has been a visiting fellow at the Center on the United States and Europe of the Brookings Institution. Riccardo holds a PhD from the University of Tuebingen.

• 1.  Introduction.-  2. The Theory: Lead groups and EU foreign policy-making.- 3.   The History: The 2003-16 Iran nuclear crisis.- 4. The Bargain: How the E3/EU came about.- 5. The Discourse: Why the E3/EU endured.- 6.   The Premise: The underneath continuity in the E3/EU Iran policy.- 7. The Action, 1: E3 leadership and EU ownership.- 8  The Action, 2: The E3/EU and the United States.- 9. The Outcome: The E3/EU as identity-shapers.- 10.  Conclusion.