Fuel Cells

Prof. Detlef Stolten is the Director of the Institute of Energy Research - Fuel Cells at the Research Center Juelich, Germany. Prof Stolten received his doctorate from the University of Technology at Clausthal, Germany. He served many years as a Research Scientist in the laboratories of Robert Bosch and Daimler Benz/Dornier. Since 1998 he has been holding the position of Director at the Research Center Juelich. Two years later he became Professor for Fuel Cell Technology at the University of Technology (RWTH) at Aachen. Prof. Stolten'sresearch focuses on electrochemical energy engineering including electrochemistry and energy process engineering of Electrolysis, SOFC and PEFC systems, i.e. cell and stack technology, process and systems engineering as well as systems analysis. Prof. Stolten is Chairman of the Implementing Agreement Advanced Fuel Cells, member of the board of the International Association of Hydrogen Energy (IAHE) and is on the advisory boards of the German National Organization of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells (NOW), and the journal Fuel Cells. He was chairman of the World Hydrogen Energy Conference 2010 (WHEC 2010). Dr. Renzi Can Samsun is the head of Group Systems Technology for on-board power supply at the Institute of Energy and Climate Research at the Juelich Research Center. His research fields are high-temperature polymer electrolyte fuel cell systems, fuel processing systems for fuel cells and modelling of energy systems. Nancy Garland is a Technology Development Manager in the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Fuel Cell Technologies. She is responsible for managing National Laboratory R&D activities in fuel cells, including membranes, catalysts, MEAs, as well as characterization and analysis. She led a High Temperature Membrane Working Group with ~ 60 participants from academia, industry, and DOE National Laboratories. Prior to coming to DOE, she was a Research Chemist at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory where she carried out experimental studies on chemical kinetics and dynamics. Dr. Garland is a member of the American Chemical Society and the Combustion Institute.

• Preface XVPart I Transportation 1I-1 Propulsion 1I-1.1 Benchmarks and Definition of Criteria 11 Battery Electric Vehicles 3Bruno Gnörich and Lutz EcksteinReferences 112 Passenger Car Drive Cycles 12Thomas Grube2.1 Introduction 122.2 Drive Cycles for Passenger Car Type Approval 132.3 Drive Cycles from Research Projects 142.4 Drive Cycle Characteristics 142.5 Graphic Representation of Selected Drive Cycles 162.6 Conclusion 21References 213 Hydrogen Fuel Quality 22James M. Ohi3.1 Introduction 223.2 Hydrogen Fuel 233.3 Fuel Quality Effects 253.4 Fuel Quality for Fuel Cell Vehicles 253.5 Single Cell Tests 263.6 Field Data 263.7 Fuel Quality Verification 273.8 Conclusion 28References 294 Fuel Consumption 30Amgad Elgowainy and Erika Sutherland4.1 Introduction 304.2 Hydrogen Production 314.3 Hydrogen Packaging 314.4 Hydrogen Consumption in FCEVs 324.5 Conclusion 34References 34I-1.2 Demonstration 37I-1.2.1 Passenger Cars 375 Global Development Status of Fuel Cell Vehicles 39Remzi Can Samsun5.1 Introduction 395.2 Update on Recent Activities of Car Manufacturers 405.3 Key Data and Results from Demonstration Programs 415.4 Technical Data of Fuel Cell Vehicles 475.4.1 Daimler 475.4.2 Ford 475.4.3 GM/Opel 505.4.4 Honda 515.4.5 Hyundai/Kia 515.4.6 Nissan 525.4.7 Toyota 535.4.8 Volkswagen 555.5 Conclusions 57References 586 Transportation – China – Passenger Cars 61Yingru Zhao6.1 Introduction 616.2 National R&D Strategy (2011–2015) 626.3 Government Policy 636.4 Published Technical Standards 636.5 Demonstrations 656.6 Commercialization – Case of SAIC Motor 676.7 Conclusions 67References 687 Results of Country Specific Program – Korea 69Tae-Hoon Lim7.1 Introduction 697.2 FCV Demonstration Program 70VI Contents7.2.1 The 1st Phase of the FCV Demonstration Project 707.2.2 The 2nd Phase of the FCV Demonstration Project 707.3 Summary 728 GM HydroGen4 – A Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle based on the Chevrolet Equinox 75Ulrich Eberle and Rittmar von Helmolt8.1 Introduction 758.2 Technology 768.3 Conclusions 84Acknowledgments 85References 86I-1.2.2 Buses 879 Results of Country Specific Programs – USA 89Leslie Eudy9.1 Introduction 899.2 FCEB Descriptions 909.3 SunLine Advanced Technology Fuel Cell Electric Bus 909.3.1 Fuel Economy 919.3.2 Availability 929.4 Zero Emission Bay Area Program 929.4.1 Fuel Economy 949.4.2 Availability 949.5 SunLine American Fuel Cell Bus 959.5.1 Fuel Economy 969.5.2 Availability 979.6 Conclusion 98References 98I-1.3 PEM fuel cells 9910 Polymer Electrolytes 101John Kopasz and Cortney Mittelsteadt10.1 Introduction 10110.2 Membrane Properties 10210.2.1 Water uptake and Swelling 10210.2.2 Protonic Conductivity 10310.2.3 Permeability 10410.2.4 Membrane Mechanical Properties and Durability 10710.3 Conclusions 108References 10811 MEAs for PEM Fuel Cells 110Andrew J. Steinbach and Mark K. Debe11.1 Introduction 11011.2 MEA Basic Components (PEMs, Catalysts, GDLs and Gaskets) 11111.3 MEA Performance, Durability, and Cost Targets for Transportation 11211.4 MEA Robustness and Sensitivity to External Factors 11511.5 Technology Gaps 11711.6 Conclusion 118References 11812 Gas Diffusion Layer 121Sehkyu Park12.1 Introduction 12112.2 Macroporous Substrate 12212.3 Microporous Layer 12312.4 Characterization of GDL 12412.5 Conclusion 126References 12713 Materials for PEMFC Bipolar Plates 128Heli Wang and John A. Turner13.1 Introduction 12813.2 Composite BP Materials 13013.3 Metallic BP Materials 13113.3.1 Light Alloys 13113.3.2 Stainless Steel Bipolar Plates 13213.3.2.1 Metal-Based Coatings 13213.3.2.2 Carbon/Polymer-Based Coatings 13313.3.3 Remarks 133Acknowledgments 133References 13314 Single Cell for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) 135Hyoung-Juhn Kim14.1 Introduction 13514.2 Main Components of a Single Cell for a PEMFC 13614.3 Assembly of a Single Cell 13714.4 Measurement of a Single Cell Performance 13814.5 Conclusions 139References 139I-1.4 Hydrogen 141I-1.4.1 On board storage 14115 Pressurized System 143Rajesh Ahluwalia and Thanh Hua15.1 Introduction 14315.2 High Pressure Storage System 14415.3 Cost 14715.4 Conclusions 148References 14816 Metal Hydrides 149Vitalie Stavila and Lennie Klebanoff16.1 Metal Hydrides as Hydrogen Storage Media 14916.2 Classes of Metal Hydrides 15216.2.1 Interstitial Metal Hydrides 15216.2.2 Magnesium and Magnesium-Based Alloys 15316.2.3 Complex Metal Hydrides 15416.2.3.1 Off-Board Reversible Metal Hydrides 15716.3 How Metal Hydrides Could Be Improved 157References 16017 Cryo-Compressed Hydrogen Storage 162Tobias Brunner, Markus Kampitsch, and Oliver Kircher17.1 Introduction 16217.2 Thermodynamic Principles 16317.3 System Design and Operating Principles 16717.4 Validation and Safety 16917.5 Summary 172References 173I-1.4.2 On board safety 17518 On-Board Safety 177Rajesh Ahluwalia and Thanh Hua18.1 Introduction 17718.2 High Pressure Fuel Container System 17918.3 Hydrogen Refueling Requirements and Safety 18018.4 Conclusions 182References 182I-2 Auxiliary power units (APU) 18319 Fuels for APU Applications 185Remzi Can Samsun19.1 Introduction 18519.2 Diesel Fuel 18619.2.1 Petroleum-Based Diesel Fuels 18619.2.2 Non-Petroleum-Based Diesel Fuels 18719.3 Jet Fuel 18919.3.1 Petroleum-Based Jet Fuels 18919.3.2 Non-Petroleum-Based Jet Fuels 19019.4 Other Fuels 19019.4.1 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) 19019.4.2 Methanol 19219.5 Conclusion 195References 19520 Application Requirements/Targets for Fuel Cell APUs 197Jacob S. Spendelow and Dimitrios C. Papageorgopoulos20.1 Introduction 19720.2 DOE Technical Targets 19820.2.1 Status and Targets of Fuel Cell APUs 19820.2.2 Target Justification 19820.2.2.1 Electrical Efficiency at Rated Power 19920.2.2.2 Power Density 19920.2.2.3 Specific Power 19920.2.2.4 Factory Cost 20020.2.2.5 Transient Response 20020.2.2.6 Startup Time 20020.2.2.7 Degradation with Cycling 20020.2.2.8 Operating Lifetime 20020.2.2.9 System Availability 201References 20121 Fuel Cells for Marine Applications 202Keno Leites21.1 Introduction 20221.2 Possible Fuel Cell Systems for Ships 20421.3 Maritime Fuel Cell Projects 20521.4 Development Goals for Future Systems 20621.5 Conclusions 206References 20722 Reforming Technologies for APUs 208Ralf Peters22.1 Introduction 20822.2 Guideline 20822.2.1 Chemical Reactions 20822.2.2 Aspects of System Design 21022.2.3 Catalysts in Fuel Processing 21122.2.4 Reactor Development of Fuel Processing 21322.2.5 Further Data Sets of Interest 21922.2.6 Other Fuels 219Appendix 22.A 220Abbreviation 220List of Symbols 221Definitions 221References 22223 PEFC Systems for APU Applications 225Remzi Can Samsun23.1 Introduction 22523.2 PEFC Operation with Reformate 22623.3 Application Concepts 22923.4 System Design 23023.5 System Efficiency 23223.6 System Test 23223.7 Conclusion 233References 23324 High Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells 235Werner Lehnert, Lukas Lüke, and Remzi Can Samsun24.1 Introduction 23524.2 Operating Behavior of Cells and Stacks 23624.3 System Level 240References 24625 Fuel Cell Systems for APU. SOFC: Cell, Stack, and Systems 248Niels ChristiansenReferences 255Part II Stationary 25726 Deployment and Capacity Trends for Stationary Fuel Cell Systems in the USA 259Max Wei, Shuk Han Chan, Ahmad Mayyas, and Tim Lipman26.1 Fuel-Cell Backup Systems 26026.2 Fuel-Cell Combined Heat and Power and Electricity 262References 26927 Specific Country Reports: Japan 270Tomio Omata27.1 Introduction 27027.2 Start of the Sales of Residential Fuel Cell Systems 27127.3 Market Growth of the Ene-Farm 27227.4 Technical Development of the Ene-Farm 27227.4.1 SOFC-type Ene-Farm and Improvement of Performance 27227.4.2 The Ene-Farm as an Emergency Electric Supply System 27327.4.3 Ene-Farms for Nitrogen Rich City Gas 27427.5 Sales of the Ene-Farm for Condominiums 27427.6 Conclusions 274References 27528 Backup Power Systems 276Shanna Knights28.1 Introduction 27628.2 Application and Power Levels 27728.3 Advantages 27728.4 Fuel Choice 27828.5 Product Parameters 27928.6 Economics 28028.7 Conclusion 280References 28029 Stationary Fuel Cells – Residential Applications 282Iain Staffell29.1 Introduction 28229.2 Key Characteristics 28329.2.1 Residential Energy Sector 28329.2.2 Residential Fuel Cell Systems 28329.3 Technical Performance 28429.3.1 Efficiency 28429.3.2 Degradation 28529.3.3 Lifetime 28629.3.4 Emissions 28729.4 Economic and Market Status 28829.4.1 Capital Costs 28829.4.2 Sales Volumes 29029.5 Conclusions 290References 29030 Fuels for Stationary Applications 293Stephen J. McPhail30.1 Introduction 29330.2 Natural Gas 29430.3 Biogas, Landfill Gas, and Biomethane 29630.4 (Bio)ethanol 29830.5 Hydrogen 300References 30231 SOFC: Cell, Stack and System Level 304Anke Hagen31.1 Introduction 30431.2 Cell Concepts and Materials 30531.3 Cell Designs 30731.4 Stack Concepts 31031.5 Stationary Systems 31031.6 Performance and Durability Parameters 313References 319Part III Materials handling 32132 Fuel Cell Forklift Systems 323Martin Müller32.1 Introduction 32332.2 Forklift Classification 32432.3 Load Profile of Horizontal Order Pickers 32432.4 Energy Supply for Forklifts 32632.5 Systems Setup and Hybridization 32632.6 Cost Comparison of Different Propulsion Systems for Forklifts 328References 33233 Fuel Cell Forklift Deployment in the USA 334Ahmad Mayyas, Max Wei, Shuk Han Chan, and Tim Lipman33.1 Fuel Cell-Powered Material Handling Equipment 334References 340Part IV Fuel provision 34334 Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis 345Antonino S. Aricò, Vincenzo Baglio, Nicola Briguglio, Gaetano Maggio, and Stefania Siracusano34.1 Introduction 34534.2 Bibliographic Analysis of PEM Electrolysis versus Water Electrolysis 34634.3 Electrocatalysts Used in PEM Water Electrolysis 34734.4 Anode Supports for PEM Water Electrolysis 34934.5 Membranes for PEM Electrolysis 34934.6 Stack and System Costs in PEM Electrolysis 35134.7 PEM Electrolysis Systems in Comparison with Competing Technologies 352References 35435 Power-to-Gas 357Gerda Reiter35.1 Introduction 35735.2 Main Components and Process Steps 35835.2.1 Water Electrolysis 35835.2.2 CH4 Synthesis 36035.2.3 CO2 Separation 36135.3 Transport and Application of H2 and CH4 36335.4 Current Developments: Pilot Plants 36535.5 Conclusion 366References 366Part V Codes and standards 36936 Hydrogen Safety and RCS (Regulations, Codes, and Standards) 371Andrei V. Tchouvelev36.1 Introduction 37136.2 Hydrogen Safety 37236.2.1 Flammability Limits and Ignition Energy 37236.2.1.1 Unique Hydrogen Flammability Limits 37236.2.1.2 Hydrogen Ignition Energy 37236.2.2 Materials Compatibility 37436.2.2.1 Hydrogen Embrittlement 37436.2.2.2 Materials Suitability for Hydrogen Service 37536.3 Hydrogen Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS) International Activities 37636.3.1 ISO/TC 197 Hydrogen Technologies 37636.3.2 CEN and European Commission 37636.3.3 HySafe and IEA HIA Hydrogen Safety Activities 37736.4 Conclusions 377Acknowledgments 377References 378Index 379