Resistive Switching

Daniele Ielmini is associate professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering, Information Science and Bioengineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy. He obtained his Ph.D. in Nuclear Engineering from Politecnico di Milano in 2000. He held visiting positions at Intel and Stanford University in 2006. His research group investigates emerging device technologies, such as phase change memory (PCM) and resistive switching memory (ReRAM) for both memory and computing applications. He has authored six book chapters, more than 200 papers published in international journals and presented at international conferences, and four patents to his name. Professor Ielmini received the Intel Outstanding Research Award in 2013 and the ERC Consolidator Grant in 2014. Rainer Waser is professor at the faculty for Electrical Engineering and Information Technology at the RWTH Aachen University and director at the Peter Grunberg Institute at the Forschungszentrum Julich (FZJ), Germany. His research group is focused on fundamental aspects of electronic materials and on such integrated devices as nonvolatile memories, logic devices, sensors and actuators.Professor Waser has published about 500 technical papers. Since 2003, he has been the coordinator of the research program on nanoelectronic systems within the Germany national research centres in the Helmholtz Association. In 2007, he has been co-founder of the Julich-Aachen Research Alliance, section Fundamentals of Future Information Technology (JARA-FIT). In 2014, he was awarded the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the Tsungming Tu Award of the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan.

• Preface XIXList of Contributors XXI1 Introduction to Nanoionic Elements for Information Technology 1Rainer Waser, Daniele Ielmini, Hiro Akinaga, Hisashi Shima, H.-S. Philip Wong, Joshua J. Yang, and Simon Yu1.1 Concept of Two-Terminal Memristive Elements 11.1.1 Classifications Based on Behavior, Mechanisms, and Operation Modes 11.1.2 Scope of the Book 61.1.3 History 91.2 Memory Applications 121.2.1 Performance Requirements and ParameterWindows 121.2.2 Device Isolation in Crossbar Arrays 161.2.3 3-D Technology 191.2.4 Memory Hierarchy 201.3 Logic Circuits 211.4 Prospects and Challenges 24Acknowledgments 25References 252 ReRAM Cells in the Framework of Two-Terminal Devices 31E. Linn, M. Di Ventra, and Y. V. Pershin2.1 Introduction 312.2 Two-Terminal Device Models 322.2.1 Lumped Elements 322.2.2 Ideal Circuit Element Approach 322.2.3 Dynamical Systems Approach 332.2.3.1 Memristive Systems 332.2.3.2 Memristor 342.2.4 Significance of the Initial Memristor and Memristive System Definitions in the Light of Physics 342.2.4.1 Limitations of Ideal Memristor Models 352.2.5 Memristive, Memcapacitive, and Meminductive Systems 352.2.6 ReRAM: Combination of Elements, Combination of Memory Features, and Consideration of Inherent Battery Effects 362.3 Fundamental Description of Electronic Devices with Memory 382.4 Device Engineer’s View on ReRAM Devices as Two-Terminal Elements 402.4.1 Modeling of Electrochemical Metallization (ECM) Devices 412.4.2 Modeling of Valence Change Mechanism (VCM) Devices 432.5 Conclusions 46Acknowledgment 47References 473 Atomic and Electronic Structure of Oxides 49Tobias Zacherle, Peter C. Schmidt, and Manfred Martin3.1 Introduction 493.2 Crystal Structures 503.3 Electronic Structure 543.3.1 From Free Atoms to the Solid State 553.3.2 Electrons in Crystals 583.3.2.1 Free Electron Model (Sommerfeld Model) 583.3.2.2 Band Structure Model 603.3.2.3 Density of States (DOS) and Partial DOS 623.3.2.4 Crystal Field Splitting 643.3.2.5 Exchange and Correlation 653.3.2.6 Computational Details 663.4 Material Classes and Characterization of the Electronic States 673.4.1 Metals 673.4.2 Semiconductors 683.4.3 Insulators 713.4.4 Point Defect States 723.4.5 Surface States 733.4.6 Amorphous States 753.5 Electronic Structure of Selected Oxides 763.5.1 Nontransition Metal Oxides 763.5.1.1 Al2O3 763.5.1.2 SrO 773.5.1.3 ZnO 773.5.2 Titanates 793.5.2.1 TiO 793.5.2.2 Ti2O3 793.5.2.3 TiO2 813.5.2.4 SrTiO3 823.5.3 Magnetic Insulators 823.5.3.1 NiO 843.5.3.2 MnO 853.5.4 MVB Metal Oxides 863.5.4.1 Metal–Insulator Transitions: NbO2, VO2, and V2O3 863.5.4.2 Tantalum Oxides TaOx 873.6 Ellingham Diagram for Binary Oxides 90Acknowledgments 91References 914 Defect Structure of Metal Oxides 95Giuliano Gregori4.1 Definition of Defects 954.1.1 Zero-Dimensional Defects 954.1.2 One-Dimensional Defects 954.1.3 Two-Dimensional Defects 974.1.4 Three-Dimensional Defects 974.2 General Considerations on the EquilibriumThermodynamics of Point Defects 984.3 Definition of Point Defects 994.3.1 Intrinsic Defects 994.3.1.1 Frenkel Defects 994.3.1.2 Anti-Frenkel Defects 994.3.1.3 Schottky Defects 1004.3.1.4 Anti-Schottky Defects 1004.3.1.5 Electron Band–Band Transfer 1004.3.2 Extrinsic Defects 1004.3.2.1 Reactions with the Environment 1004.3.2.2 The Brouwer Diagram 1014.3.2.3 Impurities and Dopants 1024.4 Space-Charge Effects 1034.4.1 Mott–Schottky Situation 1044.4.2 Gouy–Chapman Situation 1054.5 Case Studies 1064.5.1 Titanium Oxide (Rutile) 1064.5.1.1 Nominally Pure TiO2 1074.5.1.2 Acceptor-Doped TiO2 1084.5.1.3 Donor-Doped TiO2 1084.5.1.4 The Role of Dislocations 1094.5.2 Strontium Titanate 1104.5.2.1 Acceptor-Doped SrTiO3 1104.5.2.2 Donor-Doped SrTiO3 1114.5.2.3 Grain Boundaries in SrTiO3 1114.5.3 Zirconium and Hafnium Oxide 1134.5.3.1 Zirconium Oxide 1134.5.3.2 The Role of Grain Boundaries and Dislocations 1154.5.3.3 Hafnium Oxide 1164.5.4 Aluminum Oxide 1164.5.4.1 Acceptor-Doped Alumina 1174.5.4.2 Donor-Doped Alumina 1184.5.5 Tantalum Oxide 119References 1215 Ion Transport in Metal Oxides 125Roger A. De Souza5.1 Introduction 1255.2 Macroscopic Definition 1265.2.1 Two Solutions of the Diffusion Equation 1275.2.2 Dependence of the Diffusion Coefficient on Characteristic Thermodynamic Parameters 1285.3 Microscopic Definition 1295.3.1 Mechanisms of Diffusion 1305.3.2 Diffusion Coefficients of Defects and Ions 1315.3.3 The Activation Barrier for Migration 1325.4 Types of Diffusion Experiments 1345.4.1 Chemical Diffusion 1355.4.2 Tracer Diffusion 1375.4.3 Conductivity 1395.5 Mass Transport along and across Extended Defects 1415.5.1 Accelerated Transport along Extended Defects 1435.5.2 Hindered Transport across Extended Defects 1455.6 Case Studies 1455.6.1 Strontium Titanate 1475.6.2 Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ) 1505.6.3 Alumina 1535.6.4 Tantalum Pentoxide 155Acknowledgments 156References 1576 Electrical Transport in Transition Metal Oxides 165Franklin J.Wong and Shriram Ramanathan6.1 Overview 1656.2 Structure of Transition Metal Oxides 1666.2.1 Crystal Structures of Oxides 1666.2.2 Bonding and Electronic Structure 1676.3 Models of Electrical Transport 1686.3.1 Band Transport of Carriers 1686.3.2 Electronic Bandwidth 1696.3.3 Small Polaron Formation 1696.3.4 Small Polaron Transport 1716.3.5 Thermopower (Seebeck Coefficient) 1726.3.6 Hopping Transport via Defect States 1726.3.7 Bad Metallic Behavior 1746.4 Band Insulators 1756.4.1 SnO2: 3d10 System 1756.4.2 TiO2: 3d0 System 1766.5 Half-Filled Mott Insulators 1776.5.1 Correlations and the Hubbard U 1776.5.2 MnO: 3d5 System 1796.5.3 NiO: 3d8 System 1796.5.4 α-Fe2O3: 3d5 System 1826.5.5 Summary 1846.6 Temperature-Induced Metal–Insulator Transitions in Oxides 1846.6.1 Orbitals and Metal–Insulator Transitions 1846.6.2 VO2: 3d1 System 1866.6.3 Ti2O3: 3d1 System 1876.6.4 V2O3: 3d2 System 1896.6.5 Fe3O4: Mixed-Valent System 1906.6.6 Limitations 1916.6.7 Summary 192References 1937 Quantum Point Contact Conduction 197Jan van Ruitenbeek, Monica Morales Masis, and Enrique Miranda7.1 Introduction 1977.2 Conductance Quantization in Metallic Nanowires 1977.3 Conductance Quantization in Electrochemical Metallization Cells 2047.3.1 Current–Voltage Characteristics and Definition of Initial Device Resistance 2067.3.2 Stepwise Conductance Changes in Metallic Filaments 2077.4 Filamentary Conduction and Quantization Effects in Binary Oxides 2107.5 Conclusion and Outlook 218References 2188 Dielectric Breakdown Processes 225Jordi Su˜né, Nagarajan Raghavan, and K. L. Pey8.1 Introduction 2258.2 Basics of Dielectric Breakdown 2268.3 Physics of Defect Generation 2318.3.1 Thermochemical Model of Defect Generation 2328.3.2 Anode Hydrogen Release Model of Defect Generation 2338.4 Breakdown and Oxide Failure Statistics 2358.5 Implications of Breakdown Statistics for ReRAM 2378.6 Chemistry of the Breakdown Path and Inference on Filament Formation 2418.7 Summary and Conclusions 246References 2479 Physics and Chemistry of Nanoionic Cells 253Ilia Valov and Rainer Waser9.1 Introduction 2539.2 Basic Thermodynamics and Heterogeneous Equilibria 2549.3 Phase Boundaries and Boundary Layers 2589.3.1 Driving Force for the Formation of Space-Charge Layers 2589.3.2 Enrichment andWeak Depletion Layers 2609.3.3 Strong Depletion Layers 2619.3.4 Nanosize Effects on Space-Charge Regions 2639.3.5 Nanosize Effects due to Surface Curvature 2659.3.6 Formation of New Phases at Phase Boundaries 2659.4 Nucleation and Growth 2669.4.1 Macroscopic View 2669.4.2 Atomistic Theory 2679.5 Electromotive Force 2699.5.1 Electrochemical Cells of Different Half Cells 2699.5.2 Emf Caused by Surface Curvature Effects 2709.5.3 Emf Caused by Concentration Differences 2719.5.4 Diffusion Potentials 2739.6 General Transport Processes and Chemical Reactions 2749.7 Solid-State Reactions 2759.8 Electrochemical (Electrode) Reactions 2809.8.1 Charge-Transfer Process Limitations 2809.8.2 Diffusion-Limited Electrochemical Processes 2829.9 Stoichiometry Polarization 283Summary 285Acknowledgments 286References 28610 Electroforming Processes in Metal Oxide Resistive-Switching Cells 289Doo Seok Jeong, Byung Joon Choi, and Cheol Seong Hwang10.1 Introduction 28910.1.1 Forming Methods 29010.1.2 Dependence of the Bipolar Switching Behavior on the Forming Conditions 29110.1.3 Factors Influencing Forming Behavior 29410.1.4 Forming in Bipolar and Unipolar Switching 29510.1.5 Phenomenological Understanding of Forming 29710.2 Forming Mechanisms 29710.2.1 Early Suggested Forming Mechanisms 29810.2.2 Conducting Filament Formation 29810.2.3 Redox Reactions and Ion or Ionic Defect Migration during Forming 30010.2.4 Point Defect Introduction 30210.2.5 Point Defect Dynamics during the Forming Process 30410.2.6 Microscopic Evidence for CF Formation during Forming 30810.3 Technical Issues Related to Forming 31010.3.1 Problems of Current Overshoot Forming 31010.3.2 Nonuniform Forming Voltage Distribution 31110.3.3 Forming-Free Resistive Switching 31110.4 Summary and Outlook 312Acknowledgments 313References 31311 Universal Switching Behavior 317Daniele Ielmini and StephanMenzel11.1 General Properties of ReRAMs and Their Universal Behavior 31711.2 Explaining the Universal Switching of ReRAM 32011.3 Variable-Diameter Model 32111.4 Variable-Gap Model 32911.5 Coexistence of Variable-Gap/Variable-Diameter States 33411.6 Summary 337Acknowledgment 337References 33812 Quasistatic and PulseMeasuring Techniques 341Antonio Torrezan, Gilberto Medeiros-Ribeiro, and Stephan Tiedke12.1 Brief Introduction to Electronic Transport Testing of ReRAM 34112.2 Quasistatic Measurement of Current–Voltage Characteristics 34212.2.1 Dependence of Switching Parameters on Sweep Rate 34512.3 Current Compliance and Overshoot Effects 34612.4 Pulsed Measurements for the Study of Switching Dynamics 35012.4.1 Experimental Setup and Results for Nanosecond Switching with Real-Time Monitoring of Device Dynamics 35312.4.2 Experimental Setup and Results for Subnanosecond Switching with Real-Time Monitoring of Device Dynamics 35412.5 Conclusions 358Acknowledgment 359References 35913 Unipolar Resistive-Switching Mechanisms 363Ludovic Goux and Sabina Spiga13.1 Introduction to Unipolar Resistive Switching 36313.2 Principle of Unipolar Switching 36413.2.1 Basic Operation of Unipolar Memory Cells 36413.2.2 Structure of Unipolar Memory Arrays 36513.2.3 Experimental Evidences of Filamentary-Switching Mechanism 36613.2.4 Typical Materials Used in Unipolar-Switching Cells 36713.3 Unipolar-Switching Mechanisms in Model System Pt/NiO/Pt 36813.3.1 Microscopic Origin of Switching in NiO Layers 36813.3.1.1 Defect Chemistry 36813.3.1.2 Microscopic Mechanism of the Switching 37113.3.2 Physics-Based Electrical Models 37213.3.2.1 Modeling of the Reset Switching 37213.3.2.2 Modeling of the Set Switching 37313.3.3 Model Implications on the Device Level 37513.3.3.1 CF Size and RLRS Scaling with IC 37513.3.3.2 Ireset Scaling with CF Size Scaling 37613.3.3.3 Switching Speed 37713.4 Influence of Oxide and Electrode Materials on Unipolar-Switching Mechanisms 37913.4.1 Influence of the Oxide Material 38013.4.1.1 The Specific Case of TiO2 38013.4.1.2 Influence of the Oxide Microstructure 38013.4.1.3 Random Circuit Breaker Model 38113.4.1.4 Coexistence of Bipolar and Unipolar Switching 38213.4.1.5 Switching Variability and Endurance 38313.4.2 Impacts and Roles of Electrodes 38413.4.2.1 Anode-Mediated Reset Operation 38413.4.2.2 Selection Criteria of Electrode Materials 38513.5 Conclusion 386References 38714 Modeling the VCM- and ECM-Type Switching Kinetics 395Stephan Menzel and Ji-Hyun Hur14.1 Introduction 39514.2 Microscopic Switching Mechanism of VCM Cells 39514.3 Microscopic Switching Mechanism of ECM Cells 39714.4 Classification of Simulation Approaches 39814.4.1 Ab initio and Molecular Dynamics Simulation Models 39814.4.2 Kinetic Monte Carlo Simulation Models 39814.4.3 Continuum Models 39814.4.4 Compact Models 39914.5 General Considerations of the Physical Origin of the Nonlinear Switching Kinetics 39914.6 Modeling of VCM Cells 40214.6.1 Ab initio Models and MD Models 40214.6.1.1 HRS and LRS State Modeling 40214.6.1.2 Electron Transfer 40414.6.1.3 Phase Transformations and Nucleation 40514.6.1.4 Calculation of Migration Barriers 40614.6.2 Kinetic Monte Carlo Modeling 40714.6.3 Continuum Modeling 41014.6.4 Compact Modeling 41714.7 Modeling of ECM Cells 42214.7.1 Ab initio Models and MD Models 42214.7.2 KMC Modeling 42314.7.3 Continuum Modeling 42614.7.4 Compact Modeling 42814.8 Summary and Outlook 431Acknowledgment 433References 43315 Valence Change Observed by Nanospectroscopy and Spectromicroscopy 437Christian Lenser, Regina Dittmann, and John Paul Strachan15.1 Introduction 43715.2 Methods and Techniques 43915.3 Interface Phenomena 44215.3.1 Reactive Metal Layers on Insulating Oxides 44215.3.2 Formation of a Blocking Layer on Conducting Oxides 44315.3.3 Electrically Induced Redox Reactions at the Interface 44415.4 Localized Redox Reactions in Transition Metal Oxides 44615.4.1 Single Crystalline Model System – Doped SrTiO3 44615.4.2 Localized Structural and Compositional Changes in TiO2 44815.4.3 Compositional Changes in Ta2O5 and HfO2 45015.5 Conclusions 453Acknowledgment 453References 45316 Interface-Type Switching 457Akihito Sawa and Rene Meyer16.1 Introduction 45716.2 Metal/Conducting Oxide Interfaces: I–V Characteristics and Fundamentals 45916.2.1 Schottky-Like Metal/Conducting Oxide Interfaces 45916.2.2 Electronic Properties of Donor-Doped SrTiO3 46016.2.3 Electronic Properties of Mixed-Valent Manganites 46116.3 Resistive Switching of Metal/Donor-Doped SrTiO3 Cells 46316.4 Resistive Switching of p-Type PCMO Cells 46516.5 Resistive Switching in the Presence of a Tunnel Barrier 46916.5.1 Device Structure and Materials 46916.5.2 Electrical Characteristics 47016.5.3 Mechanism and Modeling 47216.5.4 Passive Cross-Point Arrays 47316.6 Ferroelectric Resistive Switching 47516.6.1 Classification of Ferroelectric Resistive Switching 47516.6.2 Ferroelectric Resistive-Switching Diode 47516.7 Summary 479Acknowledgment 480References 48017 Electrochemical Metallization Memories 483Michael N. Kozicki, MariaMitkova, and Ilia Valov17.1 Introduction 48317.2 Metal Ion Conductors 48417.2.1 Materials 48417.2.2 Ion Transport 49017.3 Electrochemistry of CBRAM (ECM) Cells 49217.3.1 Fundamental Processes 49217.3.2 Filament Growth and Dissolution 49517.3.3 Filament Morphology 50017.4 Devices 50317.4.1 Device Operation 50317.4.2 Memory Arrays 50617.5 Technological Challenges and Future Directions 508Acknowledgment 509References 51018 Atomic Switches 515Kazuya Terabe, Tohru Tsuruoka, Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, Alpana Nayak, Takeo Ohno, Tomonobu Nakayama, and Masakazu Aono18.1 Introduction 51518.1.1 Brief History of the Development of the Atomic Switch 51618.1.2 BasicWorking Principle of the Atomic Switch 51718.2 Gap-Type Atomic Switches 51918.2.1 Switching Time 51918.2.2 Electrochemical Process 52118.2.3 Cross-Bar Structure 52318.2.4 Quantized Conductance 52418.2.5 Logic-Gate Operation 52618.2.6 Synaptic Behavior 52718.2.7 Photo-Assisted Switch 52818.3 Gapless-Type Atomic Switches 52918.3.1 Sulfide-Based Switch 52918.3.2 Oxide-Based Switch 53018.3.3 Effect of Moisture 53318.3.4 Switching Time 53418.3.5 Quantized Conductance and Synaptic Behavior 53518.3.6 Polymer-Based Switch 53618.4 Three-Terminal Atomic Switches 53718.4.1 Filament-Growth-Controlled Type 53718.4.2 Nucleation-Controlled Type 53918.5 Summary 541References 54219 Scaling Limits of Nanoionic Devices 547Victor Zhirnov and Gurtej Sandhu19.1 Introduction 54719.2 Basic Operations of ICT Devices 54719.3 Minimal Nanoionic ICT 54919.3.1 Switching Mechanisms and the Material Systems 54919.3.2 Atomic Filament: Classical and Quantum Resistance 55119.3.2.1 Classical Resistance 55119.3.2.2 Quantum Resistance 55219.3.2.3 Conductance in the Presence of Barriers 55319.3.2.4 Barriers in Atomic Gaps: Nonrectangular Barrier 55519.3.2.5 Transmission through Atomic Gaps 55519.3.3 Interface Controlled Resistance (ICR) 55619.3.3.1 Electrical Properties of Material Interfaces 55719.3.3.2 Contact Resistance in a M–S (M–I) Structure 56019.3.4 Stability of the Minimal Nanoionic State 56319.4 Energetics of Nanoionic Devices 56519.4.1 Switching Speed and Energy 56519.4.2 Heat Dissipation and Transfer in a Minimal Nanoionic Device 56719.5 Summary 569Acknowledgment 569Appendix A Physical Origin of the Barrier Potential 569References 57120 Integration Technology and Cell Design 573Fred Chen, Jun Y. Seok, and Cheol S. Hwang20.1 Materials 57320.1.1 Resistance Switching (RS) Materials 57320.1.1.1 Insulating Oxides 57320.1.1.2 Semiconducting Oxides 57420.1.1.3 Electrolyte Chalcogenides 57420.1.1.4 Phase-Change Materials 57520.1.2 Electrode Materials, Including Reductants 57520.2 Structures 57620.2.1 Planar Stack 57620.2.2 Sidewall-Conforming Stack 57720.2.3 Lateral Structure 57820.3 Integration Architectures 57920.3.1 Transistor in Series with RRAM (1T1R) 57920.3.2 Transistor in Parallel with RRAM (T||R) 58220.3.3 1S1R Stacked Crosspoint 58320.3.3.1 The Selector Device 58320.3.3.2 Sensing Margin 58420.3.3.3 Write Margin 58620.3.3.4 Cumulative Line Resistance 58620.3.4 Through-Multilayer via Array 58820.3.4.1 Through-Multilayer Vias 58820.3.4.2 Staircase Connections 58920.3.4.3 Horizontal Electrodes 58920.3.4.4 Bathtub-Type Peripheral Connection 59220.3.5 Array Area Efficiency 59220.4 Conclusions 593Acknowledgment 594References 59421 Reliability Aspects 597Dirk J.Wouters, Yang-Yin Chen, Andrea Fantini, and Nagarajan Raghavan21.1 Introduction 59721.2 Endurance (Cyclability) 59821.2.1 Endurance Summary of Bipolar Switching TMO RRAM 59821.2.2 Balancing the Bipolar Switching for Better Endurance 59921.2.3 Understanding of Endurance Degradation 60021.3 Retention 60121.3.1 Retention Summary of Bipolar TMO RRAM 60121.3.2 Understanding of Retention Degradation in Bipolar TMO RRAM 60321.3.3 Trade-Off between Retention/Endurance 60421.4 Variability 60521.4.1 Introduction 60521.4.2 Experimental Aspects of Variability 60521.4.2.1 Variability of Forming Operation 60521.4.2.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Variability 60621.4.3 Physical Aspects of Variability 60721.4.3.1 Variability in Unipolar Devices 60721.4.3.2 Variability in Bipolar Devices 60721.5 Random Telegraph Noise (RTN) 60921.5.1 Introduction 60921.5.2 Charge Carrier Transport-Induced RTN 61021.5.3 Oxygen Vacancy Transport-Induced RTN 61121.5.3.1 Experimental Identification of Vacancy Perturbations 61121.5.3.2 Vacancy-Induced RTN for Shallow to Moderate Reset 61221.5.3.3 Vacancy-Induced RTN for Very Deep Reset 61321.5.3.4 Bimodal Filament Configuration and Disturb Immunity 61421.5.3.5 Role of Dielectric Microstructure on RTN Immunity 61421.5.4 Summary of RTN Analysis Studies 61521.6 Disturb 61521.6.1 Phenomena 61521.6.2 Understanding and Modeling 61621.6.3 Anomalous Disturb Behavior 61621.7 Conclusions and Outlook 617Acknowledgment 618References 61822 Select Device Concepts for Crossbar Arrays 623Geoffrey W. Burr, Rohit S. Shenoy, and Hyunsang Hwang22.1 Introduction 62322.2 Crossbar Array Considerations 62422.2.1 Problems Associated with Large Subarrays 62522.2.2 Considerations During NVM-Write 62522.2.3 Considerations During NVM-Read 62722.3 Target Specifications for Select Devices 62722.4 Types of Select Devices 62922.4.1 Si Based 62922.4.2 Oxide Diodes 63122.4.2.1 Oxide PN Junction 63122.4.2.2 Metal-Oxide Schottky Barrier 63222.4.3 Threshold Switch 63322.4.3.1 Ovonic Threshold Switching 63422.4.3.2 Metal–Insulator Transition (MIT) 63622.4.3.3 Threshold Vacuum Switch 63722.4.4 Oxide Tunnel Barrier 63822.4.4.1 Single Layer Oxide-(Nitride-)Based Select Device (TiO2 and SiNx) 63822.4.4.2 Multi-Layer Oxide-Based Select Device (TaOx/TiO2/TaOx) 63822.4.5 Mixed-Ionic-Electronic-Conduction (MIEC) 63922.5 Self-Selected Resistive Memory 64322.5.1 Complementary Resistive Switch 64522.5.2 Hybrid ReRAM-Select Devices 64722.5.3 Nonlinear ReRAM 64922.6 Conclusion 651References 65223 Bottom-Up Approaches for Resistive Switching Memories 661Sabina Spiga, Takeshi Yanagida, and Tomoji Kawai23.1 Introduction 66123.2 Bottom-Up ReRAM Fabrication Methods 66223.2.1 Vapor–Liquid–Solid Method 66223.2.2 Template-Assisted Fabrication Methods of NWs 66323.3 Resistive Switching in Single (All-Oxide) NW/Nanoisland ReRAM 66423.3.1 Resistive Switching in Single NiO NWs and Nanoislands 66523.3.2 Resistive Switching in Oxide NWs Alternative to NiO 66923.3.3 Study of Switching Mechanisms in Oxide NWReRAM 67123.3.4 Resistive Switching in NWReRAM with Active Electrodes: ECM Mechanisms 67523.4 Resistive Switching in Axial Heterostructured NWs 67823.5 Core–Shell NWs toward Crossbar Architectures 68023.5.1 Crossbar Devices with Si(core)/a-Si(shell) NWs and Ag Electrodes 68123.5.2 Crossbar Devices with Ni(core)/NiO(shell) NWs and Ni Electrodes 68323.6 Emerging Bottom-Up Approaches and Applications 68623.6.1 1D1R Nanopillar Array 68623.6.2 Block-Copolymer Self-Assembly for Advanced ReRAM 68723.7 Conclusions 688References 68924 Switch Application in FPGA 695Toshitsugu Sakamoto, S. SimonWong, and Young Yang Liauw24.1 Introduction 69524.2 Monolithically 3D FPGA with BEOL Devices 69624.3 Resistive Memory Replacing Configuration Memory 69824.3.1 Architecture 69824.4 Resistive Configuration Memory Cell 69924.5 Resistive Configuration Memory Array 70024.5.1 Prototype 70224.5.2 Measurement Results 70324.6 Complementary Atomic Switch Replacing Configuration Switch 70624.6.1 Complementary Atomic Switch (CAS) 70624.6.2 Cell Architecture with CAS 70724.6.3 Demonstration of CAS-Based Programmable Logic 70924.7 Energy Efficiency of Programmable Logic Accelerator 71024.8 Conclusion and Outlook 712References 71225 ReRAM-Based Neuromorphic Computing 715Giacomo Indiveri, Eike Linn, and Stefano Ambrogio25.1 Neuromorphic Systems: Past and Present Approaches 71525.2 Neuromorphic Engineering 71525.3 Neuromorphic Computing (The Present) 71625.4 Neuromorphic ReRAM Approaches (The Future) 71825.4.1 ReRAM-Based Neuromorphic Approaches 71825.4.2 Nonvolatility and Volatility of Resistive States 72125.4.3 Nonlinear Switching Kinetics 72225.4.4 Multilevel Resistance Behavior 72225.4.5 Capacitive Properties 72525.4.6 Switching Statistics 72525.5 Scaling in Neuromorphic ReRAM Architectures 72825.6 Applications of Neuromorphic ReRAM Architectures 729References 731Index 737