Stefano Passerini is Professor at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) and Deputy Director of the Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU, Germany) since January 1, 2014. Formerly Professor at the University of Muenster (Germany), he co-founded the MEET battery research center (Muenster, Germany). His research activities are focused on electrochemical energy storage in batteries and supercapacitors. He is co-author of more than 480 scientific papers (h-index of 66), a few book chapters and several international patents. In 2012, he has been awarded the Research Award of the Electrochemical Society Battery Division. Since 2015 he has been appointed as Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Power Sources. Dominic Bresser is presently establishing a young investigator research group at the Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) and Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany. The focus of the group?s activities is on the investigation and development of alternative lithium-ion anode materials. Simultaneously, he is working with Prof. Stefano Passerini on aqueous electrode processing technologies for high-energy lithium-ion cathodes and pursuing his habilitation at the University of Ulm. Prior to his present activities, he held a two-years postdoctoral position and Enhanced Eurotalents Fellowship at the CEA in Grenoble, France, where he was studying nanostructured single-ion conductors and poly(ionic liquid)s as electrolyte systems. Beforehand, he carried out his PhD in the group of Stefano Passerini at the University of Muenster, Germany, studying nanostructured active materials for lithium- and sodium-based batteries. He is Co-Author of more than 50 peer-reviewed international publications (h-index of 21) as well as three book chapters and several international patent applications. Arianna Moretti is a senior scientist at the Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) for Electrochemical Energy Storage, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany. Her research activities focus on Li-metal and Li-ion batteries and include the development of electrolytes and electroactive materials, electrode processing, cell aging and post-mortem studies. In 2009, she graduated in Chemistry at the University of Camerino, Italy, with a dissertation on catalysts for proton exchange membrane fuel cells. In 2013, she accomplished her PhD studies working in the electrochemistry group of Prof. Marassi on olivine-type cathode material. Afterward she joined as Post-doc the group of Prof. Passerini at WWU Münster and MEET (Münster Electrochemical Energy Technology) conducting the research on ionic liquids and vanadium oxides. She is co-author of more than 20 peer-reviewed publications with an h-index of 10. Alberto Varzi is a senior scientist at the Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) for Electrochemical Energy Storage, with a research focus on electrochemical energy storage devices such as lithium-ion, lithium-sulfur batteries and supercapacitors. He studied Chemistry of Materials at the University of Bologna, Italy and graduated in 2008 working with Prof. Mastragostino on catalysts and membranes for direct methanol fuel cells. He continued his education in Germany and received his PhD in 2013 from the University of Ulm, working with Dr. Margret Wohlfahrt-Mehrens on carbon nanotubes for lithium-ion battery applications. Postdoctoral research he did with Prof. Passerini at WWU Münster and MEET (Münster Electrochemical Energy Technology), dealing with the development of environmentally friendly materials for high power devices. He co-authored more than 27 peer-reviewed papers, 2 patents, and received close to 1200 citations, with an h-index of 12 and i-10-index of 15.

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• About the Editors xxiiiList of Contributors xxviiPreface xxxiiiSection I Introduction 11 The Role of Batteries for the Successful Transition to Renewable Energy Sources 3Dominic Bresser, Arianna Moretti, Alberto Varzi, and Stefano Passerini1 The Need for Transitioning to Renewable Energy Sources 32 Energy Storage as Key Enabler 53 The Variety of Battery Chemistries and Technologies 92 Fundamental Principles of Battery Electrochemistry 13Francesco Nobili and Roberto Marassi1 Introduction 132 Main Battery Components 163 Voltage, Capacity, and Energy 194 Current and Power 295 Practical Operating Parameters 356 Main Classes of Batteries and Alternative Electrochemical Power Sources 37Section II Presently Employed Battery Technologies 493 Lead-Acid – Still the Battery Technology with the Largest Sales 51Johannes Buengeler and Bernhard Riegel1 Introduction and History 512 Fundamentals of the Lead-Acid Accumulator 523 Behavior of the Lead-Acid Accumulator During Current Flow 624 AgingMechanisms 675 Acid Stratification 736 BatteryDesign 767 Discharge Characteristic 808 Charging Algorithms 829 TemperatureEffects 8610 New Development Trends for Advanced Lead-Acid Batteries 894 Ni/Cd and Ni-MH – The Transition to "Charge Carrier"-Based Batteries 95HuiWang andMin Zhu1 Introduction to Ni/Cd and Ni-MH Batteries 952 Basic Structure of Ni-MH Battery 973 Electrochemistry of Ni-MH Battery 984 Positive Electrode Materials of Ni-MH Batteries 1005 Negative Electrode Materials of Ni-MH Batteries 1046 State-of-the-Art of Ni-MH Battery 1167 Summary 1255 Brief Survey on the Historical Development of LIBs 131Kazunori Ozawa1 Introduction 1312 Aqueous Electrolyte System 1313 Nonaqueous Electrolyte System 1324 Insertion/Extraction of Lithium Ion 1355 Success of Sony 1356 Conclusion 1476 Present LIB Chemistries 1491 General Introduction 149Zempachi Ogumi2 Positive Electrodes 150Hajime Arai3 Negative Electrodes 159Takeshi Abe4 Electrolytes 167Masayuki Morita7 Anticipated Progress in the Near- to Mid-Term Future of LIBs 185Seung-TaekMyung, Jongsoon Kim, and Yang-Kook Sun1 Cathode 1852 Anode 1923 Electrolyte 1994 Separator 2045 Outlook 2068 Safety Considerations with Lithium-Ion Batteries 217Jürgen Garche and Klaus Brandt1 Introduction 2172 Material Influence on Risks 2183 RiskClasses 2244 Triggering of Risks 2285 Handling of Risk Events 2346 Summary and Outlook 2389 Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries 243Marit Mohr, MarcelWeil, Jens Peters, and ZhangqiWang1 Introduction 2432 Recycling Technologies/Processes 2463 Assessment of Battery Recycling Processes 2594 Challenges and Potentials 2655 Conclusion 27010 Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries 277Ruiyong Chen, Zhifeng Huang, Rolf Hempelmann, Dirk Henkensmeier, and Sangwon Kim1 Introduction 2772 Vanadium Electrolytes 2783 Membranes and Transport of Species 2884 Electrode Materials 2965 Conclusions 30111 Redox Flow – Zn–Br 311Hee-Tak Kim, Ju-Hyuk Lee, Dae Sik Kim, and Jung Hoon Yang1 Overview of Zn–Br Batteries 3112 Battery Components 3153 BatteryDesign 3344 BatteryManagement 3385 Summary 34012 The Sodium/Nickel Chloride Battery 349Marco Ottaviani, Alberto Turconi, and Diego Basso1 General Characteristics 3492 Description of the Electrochemical Systems 3503 Cell Design and Performance Characteristics 3534 Battery Design and Performance Characteristics 3605 Series Production Technology 3646 Market Overview and Application 3657 Transport of Cells and Batteries 36613 High-Temperature Battery Technologies: Na-S 371Verónica Palomares, Karina B. Hueso,Michel Armand, and Teófilo Rojo1 Introduction 3712 High-Temperature Sodium–Sulfur Systems 3733 Intermediate-Temperature Sodium–Sulfur Systems 3864 Low-Temperature Sodium–Sulfur Systems 3875 Sodium–Sulfur Technology Implementation in Industry 3936 Conclusions 39614 Solid-State Batteries with Polymer Electrolytes 407Cristina Iojoiu and Elie Paillard1 Introduction 4072 Lithium-Ion Batteries and “Soft” Gel Electrolytes 4103 Lithium Metal Batteries and SPEs 4124 Perspectives 4245 Conclusions 436Section III Potential Candidates for the Future Energy Storage 45715 Solid-State Batteries with Inorganic Electrolytes 459Naoki Suzuki, TakuWatanabe, Satoshi Fujiki, and Yuichi Aihara1 Introduction 4592 All-Solid-State Li Primary Batteries 4703 All-Solid-State Secondary Battery 4724 Outlook 50816 Li/S 521Sheng-Heng Chung and Arumugam Manthiram1 Introduction 5212 IntrinsicMaterials Issues 5283 Extrinsic Technical Issues 5364 Conclusion 54617 Lithium–Oxygen Batteries 557Yann K. Petit, Eléonore Mourad, and Stefan A. Freunberger1 Introduction 5572 Attainable PerformanceMetrics ofMetal–O2 Cells 5583 Reaction Mechanism of the Li–O2 Cathode 5614 Parasitic Chemistry in Metal–O2 Cathodes 5685 TheElectrodes 5786 Moving the Li–O2 Cathode Chemistry into Solution 5817 Electrolytes and Their Stability 5858 Conclusions 58618 Nonlithium Aprotic Metal/Oxygen Batteries Using Na, K, Mg, or Ca as Metal Anode 599Daniel Schröder, Jürgen Janek, and Philipp Adelhelm1 Introduction 5992 Basic Principles and Performance Metrics 6003 Redox Reactions in the Various Metal/Oxygen Batteries 6054 Summary and Prospects 61919 Na-Ion Batteries 629Kei Kubota and Shinichi Komaba1 Introduction 6292 Active Materials, Electrolyte, and Binders for a Negative Electrode 6323 Positive Electrode Materials 6514 Summary and Perspective 67120 Multivalent Charge Carriers 693Jan Bitenc, Alexandre Ponrouch, Robert Dominko, Patrik Johansson, and M. Rosa Palacin1 Introduction 6932 Magnesium-Based Batteries 6983 Calcium-Based Batteries 7064 Aluminum-Based Batteries 7105 Technological Prospects 7156 Conclusion 71821 Aqueous Zinc Batteries 729Simon Clark, Niklas Borchers, Zenonas Jusys, R. Jürgen Behm, and Birger Horstmann1 Introduction 7292 History 7303 Zinc as an Electrode Material 7334 Alkaline Zn–MnO2 Batteries 7375 Zinc-IonBatteries 7406 Zinc-AirBatteries 7487 Conclusion 76522 Full-Organic Batteries 783Lionel Picard and Thibaut Gutel1 Why Full-Organic Batteries? 7832 Advantages and Challenges Around Organic Materials 7843 The Different Configurations of Full-Organic Batteries 7894 The Main Electroactive Functions andTheir Mechanisms 7905 Strategies Against Solubilization of the Active Organic Materials 8076 Strategies for Improving Electronic Conductivity 8347 Full-Organic Batteries 8378 Concluding Remarks 845References 846Index 857

Stefano Passerini is Professor at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) and Deputy Director of the Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU, Germany) since January 1, 2014. Formerly Professor at the University of Muenster (Germany), he co-founded the MEET battery research center (Muenster, Germany). His research activities are focused on electrochemical energy storage in batteries and supercapacitors. He is co-author of more than 480 scientific papers (h-index of 66), a few book chapters and several international patents. In 2012, he has been awarded the Research Award of the Electrochemical Society Battery Division. Since 2015 he has been appointed as Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Power Sources. Dominic Bresser is presently establishing a young investigator research group at the Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) and Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany. The focus of the group?s activities is on the investigation and development of alternative lithium-ion anode materials. Simultaneously, he is working with Prof. Stefano Passerini on aqueous electrode processing technologies for high-energy lithium-ion cathodes and pursuing his habilitation at the University of Ulm. Prior to his present activities, he held a two-years postdoctoral position and Enhanced Eurotalents Fellowship at the CEA in Grenoble, France, where he was studying nanostructured single-ion conductors and poly(ionic liquid)s as electrolyte systems. Beforehand, he carried out his PhD in the group of Stefano Passerini at the University of Muenster, Germany, studying nanostructured active materials for lithium- and sodium-based batteries. He is Co-Author of more than 50 peer-reviewed international publications (h-index of 21) as well as three book chapters and several international patent applications. Arianna Moretti is a senior scientist at the Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) for Electrochemical Energy Storage, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany. Her research activities focus on Li-metal and Li-ion batteries and include the development of electrolytes and electroactive materials, electrode processing, cell aging and post-mortem studies. In 2009, she graduated in Chemistry at the University of Camerino, Italy, with a dissertation on catalysts for proton exchange membrane fuel cells. In 2013, she accomplished her PhD studies working in the electrochemistry group of Prof. Marassi on olivine-type cathode material. Afterward she joined as Post-doc the group of Prof. Passerini at WWU Münster and MEET (Münster Electrochemical Energy Technology) conducting the research on ionic liquids and vanadium oxides. She is co-author of more than 20 peer-reviewed publications with an h-index of 10. Alberto Varzi is a senior scientist at the Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) for Electrochemical Energy Storage, with a research focus on electrochemical energy storage devices such as lithium-ion, lithium-sulfur batteries and supercapacitors. He studied Chemistry of Materials at the University of Bologna, Italy and graduated in 2008 working with Prof. Mastragostino on catalysts and membranes for direct methanol fuel cells. He continued his education in Germany and received his PhD in 2013 from the University of Ulm, working with Dr. Margret Wohlfahrt-Mehrens on carbon nanotubes for lithium-ion battery applications. Postdoctoral research he did with Prof. Passerini at WWU Münster and MEET (Münster Electrochemical Energy Technology), dealing with the development of environmentally friendly materials for high power devices. He co-authored more than 27 peer-reviewed papers, 2 patents, and received close to 1200 citations, with an h-index of 12 and i-10-index of 15.

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• About the Editors xxiiiList of Contributors xxviiPreface xxxiiiSection I Introduction 11 The Role of Batteries for the Successful Transition to Renewable Energy Sources 3Dominic Bresser, Arianna Moretti, Alberto Varzi, and Stefano Passerini1 The Need for Transitioning to Renewable Energy Sources 32 Energy Storage as Key Enabler 53 The Variety of Battery Chemistries and Technologies 92 Fundamental Principles of Battery Electrochemistry 13Francesco Nobili and Roberto Marassi1 Introduction 132 Main Battery Components 163 Voltage, Capacity, and Energy 194 Current and Power 295 Practical Operating Parameters 356 Main Classes of Batteries and Alternative Electrochemical Power Sources 37Section II Presently Employed Battery Technologies 493 Lead-Acid – Still the Battery Technology with the Largest Sales 51Johannes Buengeler and Bernhard Riegel1 Introduction and History 512 Fundamentals of the Lead-Acid Accumulator 523 Behavior of the Lead-Acid Accumulator During Current Flow 624 AgingMechanisms 675 Acid Stratification 736 BatteryDesign 767 Discharge Characteristic 808 Charging Algorithms 829 TemperatureEffects 8610 New Development Trends for Advanced Lead-Acid Batteries 894 Ni/Cd and Ni-MH – The Transition to "Charge Carrier"-Based Batteries 95HuiWang andMin Zhu1 Introduction to Ni/Cd and Ni-MH Batteries 952 Basic Structure of Ni-MH Battery 973 Electrochemistry of Ni-MH Battery 984 Positive Electrode Materials of Ni-MH Batteries 1005 Negative Electrode Materials of Ni-MH Batteries 1046 State-of-the-Art of Ni-MH Battery 1167 Summary 1255 Brief Survey on the Historical Development of LIBs 131Kazunori Ozawa1 Introduction 1312 Aqueous Electrolyte System 1313 Nonaqueous Electrolyte System 1324 Insertion/Extraction of Lithium Ion 1355 Success of Sony 1356 Conclusion 1476 Present LIB Chemistries 1491 General Introduction 149Zempachi Ogumi2 Positive Electrodes 150Hajime Arai3 Negative Electrodes 159Takeshi Abe4 Electrolytes 167Masayuki Morita7 Anticipated Progress in the Near- to Mid-Term Future of LIBs 185Seung-TaekMyung, Jongsoon Kim, and Yang-Kook Sun1 Cathode 1852 Anode 1923 Electrolyte 1994 Separator 2045 Outlook 2068 Safety Considerations with Lithium-Ion Batteries 217Jürgen Garche and Klaus Brandt1 Introduction 2172 Material Influence on Risks 2183 RiskClasses 2244 Triggering of Risks 2285 Handling of Risk Events 2346 Summary and Outlook 2389 Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries 243Marit Mohr, MarcelWeil, Jens Peters, and ZhangqiWang1 Introduction 2432 Recycling Technologies/Processes 2463 Assessment of Battery Recycling Processes 2594 Challenges and Potentials 2655 Conclusion 27010 Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries 277Ruiyong Chen, Zhifeng Huang, Rolf Hempelmann, Dirk Henkensmeier, and Sangwon Kim1 Introduction 2772 Vanadium Electrolytes 2783 Membranes and Transport of Species 2884 Electrode Materials 2965 Conclusions 30111 Redox Flow – Zn–Br 311Hee-Tak Kim, Ju-Hyuk Lee, Dae Sik Kim, and Jung Hoon Yang1 Overview of Zn–Br Batteries 3112 Battery Components 3153 BatteryDesign 3344 BatteryManagement 3385 Summary 34012 The Sodium/Nickel Chloride Battery 349Marco Ottaviani, Alberto Turconi, and Diego Basso1 General Characteristics 3492 Description of the Electrochemical Systems 3503 Cell Design and Performance Characteristics 3534 Battery Design and Performance Characteristics 3605 Series Production Technology 3646 Market Overview and Application 3657 Transport of Cells and Batteries 36613 High-Temperature Battery Technologies: Na-S 371Verónica Palomares, Karina B. Hueso,Michel Armand, and Teófilo Rojo1 Introduction 3712 High-Temperature Sodium–Sulfur Systems 3733 Intermediate-Temperature Sodium–Sulfur Systems 3864 Low-Temperature Sodium–Sulfur Systems 3875 Sodium–Sulfur Technology Implementation in Industry 3936 Conclusions 39614 Solid-State Batteries with Polymer Electrolytes 407Cristina Iojoiu and Elie Paillard1 Introduction 4072 Lithium-Ion Batteries and “Soft” Gel Electrolytes 4103 Lithium Metal Batteries and SPEs 4124 Perspectives 4245 Conclusions 436Section III Potential Candidates for the Future Energy Storage 45715 Solid-State Batteries with Inorganic Electrolytes 459Naoki Suzuki, TakuWatanabe, Satoshi Fujiki, and Yuichi Aihara1 Introduction 4592 All-Solid-State Li Primary Batteries 4703 All-Solid-State Secondary Battery 4724 Outlook 50816 Li/S 521Sheng-Heng Chung and Arumugam Manthiram1 Introduction 5212 IntrinsicMaterials Issues 5283 Extrinsic Technical Issues 5364 Conclusion 54617 Lithium–Oxygen Batteries 557Yann K. Petit, Eléonore Mourad, and Stefan A. Freunberger1 Introduction 5572 Attainable PerformanceMetrics ofMetal–O2 Cells 5583 Reaction Mechanism of the Li–O2 Cathode 5614 Parasitic Chemistry in Metal–O2 Cathodes 5685 TheElectrodes 5786 Moving the Li–O2 Cathode Chemistry into Solution 5817 Electrolytes and Their Stability 5858 Conclusions 58618 Nonlithium Aprotic Metal/Oxygen Batteries Using Na, K, Mg, or Ca as Metal Anode 599Daniel Schröder, Jürgen Janek, and Philipp Adelhelm1 Introduction 5992 Basic Principles and Performance Metrics 6003 Redox Reactions in the Various Metal/Oxygen Batteries 6054 Summary and Prospects 61919 Na-Ion Batteries 629Kei Kubota and Shinichi Komaba1 Introduction 6292 Active Materials, Electrolyte, and Binders for a Negative Electrode 6323 Positive Electrode Materials 6514 Summary and Perspective 67120 Multivalent Charge Carriers 693Jan Bitenc, Alexandre Ponrouch, Robert Dominko, Patrik Johansson, and M. Rosa Palacin1 Introduction 6932 Magnesium-Based Batteries 6983 Calcium-Based Batteries 7064 Aluminum-Based Batteries 7105 Technological Prospects 7156 Conclusion 71821 Aqueous Zinc Batteries 729Simon Clark, Niklas Borchers, Zenonas Jusys, R. Jürgen Behm, and Birger Horstmann1 Introduction 7292 History 7303 Zinc as an Electrode Material 7334 Alkaline Zn–MnO2 Batteries 7375 Zinc-IonBatteries 7406 Zinc-AirBatteries 7487 Conclusion 76522 Full-Organic Batteries 783Lionel Picard and Thibaut Gutel1 Why Full-Organic Batteries? 7832 Advantages and Challenges Around Organic Materials 7843 The Different Configurations of Full-Organic Batteries 7894 The Main Electroactive Functions andTheir Mechanisms 7905 Strategies Against Solubilization of the Active Organic Materials 8076 Strategies for Improving Electronic Conductivity 8347 Full-Organic Batteries 8378 Concluding Remarks 845References 846Index 857

Stefano Passerini is Professor at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) and Deputy Director of the Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU, Germany) since January 1, 2014. Formerly Professor at the University of Muenster (Germany), he co-founded the MEET battery research center (Muenster, Germany). His research activities are focused on electrochemical energy storage in batteries and supercapacitors. He is co-author of more than 480 scientific papers (h-index of 66), a few book chapters and several international patents. In 2012, he has been awarded the Research Award of the Electrochemical Society Battery Division. Since 2015 he has been appointed as Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Power Sources. Dominic Bresser is presently establishing a young investigator research group at the Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) and Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany. The focus of the group?s activities is on the investigation and development of alternative lithium-ion anode materials. Simultaneously, he is working with Prof. Stefano Passerini on aqueous electrode processing technologies for high-energy lithium-ion cathodes and pursuing his habilitation at the University of Ulm. Prior to his present activities, he held a two-years postdoctoral position and Enhanced Eurotalents Fellowship at the CEA in Grenoble, France, where he was studying nanostructured single-ion conductors and poly(ionic liquid)s as electrolyte systems. Beforehand, he carried out his PhD in the group of Stefano Passerini at the University of Muenster, Germany, studying nanostructured active materials for lithium- and sodium-based batteries. He is Co-Author of more than 50 peer-reviewed international publications (h-index of 21) as well as three book chapters and several international patent applications. Arianna Moretti is a senior scientist at the Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) for Electrochemical Energy Storage, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany. Her research activities focus on Li-metal and Li-ion batteries and include the development of electrolytes and electroactive materials, electrode processing, cell aging and post-mortem studies. In 2009, she graduated in Chemistry at the University of Camerino, Italy, with a dissertation on catalysts for proton exchange membrane fuel cells. In 2013, she accomplished her PhD studies working in the electrochemistry group of Prof. Marassi on olivine-type cathode material. Afterward she joined as Post-doc the group of Prof. Passerini at WWU Münster and MEET (Münster Electrochemical Energy Technology) conducting the research on ionic liquids and vanadium oxides. She is co-author of more than 20 peer-reviewed publications with an h-index of 10. Alberto Varzi is a senior scientist at the Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) for Electrochemical Energy Storage, with a research focus on electrochemical energy storage devices such as lithium-ion, lithium-sulfur batteries and supercapacitors. He studied Chemistry of Materials at the University of Bologna, Italy and graduated in 2008 working with Prof. Mastragostino on catalysts and membranes for direct methanol fuel cells. He continued his education in Germany and received his PhD in 2013 from the University of Ulm, working with Dr. Margret Wohlfahrt-Mehrens on carbon nanotubes for lithium-ion battery applications. Postdoctoral research he did with Prof. Passerini at WWU Münster and MEET (Münster Electrochemical Energy Technology), dealing with the development of environmentally friendly materials for high power devices. He co-authored more than 27 peer-reviewed papers, 2 patents, and received close to 1200 citations, with an h-index of 12 and i-10-index of 15.

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• About the Editors xxiiiList of Contributors xxviiPreface xxxiiiSection I Introduction 11 The Role of Batteries for the Successful Transition to Renewable Energy Sources 3Dominic Bresser, Arianna Moretti, Alberto Varzi, and Stefano Passerini1 The Need for Transitioning to Renewable Energy Sources 32 Energy Storage as Key Enabler 53 The Variety of Battery Chemistries and Technologies 92 Fundamental Principles of Battery Electrochemistry 13Francesco Nobili and Roberto Marassi1 Introduction 132 Main Battery Components 163 Voltage, Capacity, and Energy 194 Current and Power 295 Practical Operating Parameters 356 Main Classes of Batteries and Alternative Electrochemical Power Sources 37Section II Presently Employed Battery Technologies 493 Lead-Acid – Still the Battery Technology with the Largest Sales 51Johannes Buengeler and Bernhard Riegel1 Introduction and History 512 Fundamentals of the Lead-Acid Accumulator 523 Behavior of the Lead-Acid Accumulator During Current Flow 624 AgingMechanisms 675 Acid Stratification 736 BatteryDesign 767 Discharge Characteristic 808 Charging Algorithms 829 TemperatureEffects 8610 New Development Trends for Advanced Lead-Acid Batteries 894 Ni/Cd and Ni-MH – The Transition to "Charge Carrier"-Based Batteries 95HuiWang andMin Zhu1 Introduction to Ni/Cd and Ni-MH Batteries 952 Basic Structure of Ni-MH Battery 973 Electrochemistry of Ni-MH Battery 984 Positive Electrode Materials of Ni-MH Batteries 1005 Negative Electrode Materials of Ni-MH Batteries 1046 State-of-the-Art of Ni-MH Battery 1167 Summary 1255 Brief Survey on the Historical Development of LIBs 131Kazunori Ozawa1 Introduction 1312 Aqueous Electrolyte System 1313 Nonaqueous Electrolyte System 1324 Insertion/Extraction of Lithium Ion 1355 Success of Sony 1356 Conclusion 1476 Present LIB Chemistries 1491 General Introduction 149Zempachi Ogumi2 Positive Electrodes 150Hajime Arai3 Negative Electrodes 159Takeshi Abe4 Electrolytes 167Masayuki Morita7 Anticipated Progress in the Near- to Mid-Term Future of LIBs 185Seung-TaekMyung, Jongsoon Kim, and Yang-Kook Sun1 Cathode 1852 Anode 1923 Electrolyte 1994 Separator 2045 Outlook 2068 Safety Considerations with Lithium-Ion Batteries 217Jürgen Garche and Klaus Brandt1 Introduction 2172 Material Influence on Risks 2183 RiskClasses 2244 Triggering of Risks 2285 Handling of Risk Events 2346 Summary and Outlook 2389 Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries 243Marit Mohr, MarcelWeil, Jens Peters, and ZhangqiWang1 Introduction 2432 Recycling Technologies/Processes 2463 Assessment of Battery Recycling Processes 2594 Challenges and Potentials 2655 Conclusion 27010 Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries 277Ruiyong Chen, Zhifeng Huang, Rolf Hempelmann, Dirk Henkensmeier, and Sangwon Kim1 Introduction 2772 Vanadium Electrolytes 2783 Membranes and Transport of Species 2884 Electrode Materials 2965 Conclusions 30111 Redox Flow – Zn–Br 311Hee-Tak Kim, Ju-Hyuk Lee, Dae Sik Kim, and Jung Hoon Yang1 Overview of Zn–Br Batteries 3112 Battery Components 3153 BatteryDesign 3344 BatteryManagement 3385 Summary 34012 The Sodium/Nickel Chloride Battery 349Marco Ottaviani, Alberto Turconi, and Diego Basso1 General Characteristics 3492 Description of the Electrochemical Systems 3503 Cell Design and Performance Characteristics 3534 Battery Design and Performance Characteristics 3605 Series Production Technology 3646 Market Overview and Application 3657 Transport of Cells and Batteries 36613 High-Temperature Battery Technologies: Na-S 371Verónica Palomares, Karina B. Hueso,Michel Armand, and Teófilo Rojo1 Introduction 3712 High-Temperature Sodium–Sulfur Systems 3733 Intermediate-Temperature Sodium–Sulfur Systems 3864 Low-Temperature Sodium–Sulfur Systems 3875 Sodium–Sulfur Technology Implementation in Industry 3936 Conclusions 39614 Solid-State Batteries with Polymer Electrolytes 407Cristina Iojoiu and Elie Paillard1 Introduction 4072 Lithium-Ion Batteries and “Soft” Gel Electrolytes 4103 Lithium Metal Batteries and SPEs 4124 Perspectives 4245 Conclusions 436Section III Potential Candidates for the Future Energy Storage 45715 Solid-State Batteries with Inorganic Electrolytes 459Naoki Suzuki, TakuWatanabe, Satoshi Fujiki, and Yuichi Aihara1 Introduction 4592 All-Solid-State Li Primary Batteries 4703 All-Solid-State Secondary Battery 4724 Outlook 50816 Li/S 521Sheng-Heng Chung and Arumugam Manthiram1 Introduction 5212 IntrinsicMaterials Issues 5283 Extrinsic Technical Issues 5364 Conclusion 54617 Lithium–Oxygen Batteries 557Yann K. Petit, Eléonore Mourad, and Stefan A. Freunberger1 Introduction 5572 Attainable PerformanceMetrics ofMetal–O2 Cells 5583 Reaction Mechanism of the Li–O2 Cathode 5614 Parasitic Chemistry in Metal–O2 Cathodes 5685 TheElectrodes 5786 Moving the Li–O2 Cathode Chemistry into Solution 5817 Electrolytes and Their Stability 5858 Conclusions 58618 Nonlithium Aprotic Metal/Oxygen Batteries Using Na, K, Mg, or Ca as Metal Anode 599Daniel Schröder, Jürgen Janek, and Philipp Adelhelm1 Introduction 5992 Basic Principles and Performance Metrics 6003 Redox Reactions in the Various Metal/Oxygen Batteries 6054 Summary and Prospects 61919 Na-Ion Batteries 629Kei Kubota and Shinichi Komaba1 Introduction 6292 Active Materials, Electrolyte, and Binders for a Negative Electrode 6323 Positive Electrode Materials 6514 Summary and Perspective 67120 Multivalent Charge Carriers 693Jan Bitenc, Alexandre Ponrouch, Robert Dominko, Patrik Johansson, and M. Rosa Palacin1 Introduction 6932 Magnesium-Based Batteries 6983 Calcium-Based Batteries 7064 Aluminum-Based Batteries 7105 Technological Prospects 7156 Conclusion 71821 Aqueous Zinc Batteries 729Simon Clark, Niklas Borchers, Zenonas Jusys, R. Jürgen Behm, and Birger Horstmann1 Introduction 7292 History 7303 Zinc as an Electrode Material 7334 Alkaline Zn–MnO2 Batteries 7375 Zinc-IonBatteries 7406 Zinc-AirBatteries 7487 Conclusion 76522 Full-Organic Batteries 783Lionel Picard and Thibaut Gutel1 Why Full-Organic Batteries? 7832 Advantages and Challenges Around Organic Materials 7843 The Different Configurations of Full-Organic Batteries 7894 The Main Electroactive Functions andTheir Mechanisms 7905 Strategies Against Solubilization of the Active Organic Materials 8076 Strategies for Improving Electronic Conductivity 8347 Full-Organic Batteries 8378 Concluding Remarks 845References 846Index 857