Orbital Debris Prevention and Mitigation Efforts among Major Space Actors

Lieutenant Colonel (Dr.) Marc G. Carns, LL.M. (2016), J.S.D. (2022) University of Nebraska, is a career United States Air Force Military Officer and Air Force Judge Advocate. Lt Col. Carns specializes in advising on legal issues affecting national security and defense initiatives in Air, Space, and Cyberspace. He also serves as an adjunct professor at various universities.

• PrefaceList of FiguresAbbreviationsIntroduction Access for All1 The Debris Problem1 Introduction1.1 Early Recognition of the Risk of Space Debris2 Space Debris Defined3 Space Debris Creation4 Identifying the Degree of Space Debris Accumulation—What Is Space ssa?4.1 Who Is Responsible for ssa Management?4.2 Other ssa Programs4.3 How Are Space Objects (and Debris) Identified and Tracked?4.4 How Does ssa Work5 Conclusion2 International Law and the Formal Space Treaties1 Introduction2 Public International Law2.1 Development of Public International Law Related to Space3 International Space Treaties3.1 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies3.1.1 Outer Space Treaty, Article i3.1.2 Outer Space Treaty, Article ii3.1.3 Outer Space Treaty, Article iii3.1.4 Outer Space Treaty, Article ix3.1.5 Outer Space Treaty, Article xi3.2 The Remaining ‘Big 4’ International Space Treaties4 Jurisdiction of Space Objects5 Registration of Space Objects6 Conclusion3 Development of Customary International Law—Space Law and Debris Mitigation1 Introduction2 Basic Requirements of Customary International Law2.1 Time Requirement of Customary International Law2.1.1 How Important Is the Time Element of Customary International Law in Modern Times2.1.2 Continuous Claim and Response2.1.3 Harry S. Truman and the Continental Shelf—Testing the Time Requirement2.1.4 Legitimacy of Instant Customary International Law in the Courts3 Instant Customary International Law in Space Law3.1 Post-Truman—Sputnik as the Next Use Case4 International Efforts in Space Debris Mitigation—on the Cusp of Customary International Law4.1 The United Nations Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space4.1.1 Leading to the Mitigation Guidelines—Initial Assessments of Nation-State Efforts4.1.2 From Analysis to Understanding—the Development of the Debris Mitigation Guidelines4.1.3 From Understanding to Action—Drafting the Debris Mitigation Guidelines4.1.4 Reviewing the Impact: Debris Mitigation Guidelines5 International Telecommunications Union6 Conclusion4 The United States—Space Debris Mitigation, Prevention, and Policy1 Introduction—US Space Debris Policy1.1 Development of National-Level US Space Debris Policy1.2 Orbital Debris Mitigation Standard Practices and spd-31.3 2020 US National Space Policy1.3.1 The Six Principles of President Trump’s National Space Policy1.3.2 The Eight Goals of President Trump’s National Space Policy1.3.3 President Trump’s National Space Policy and Orbital Debris1.4 Impact of odmsp Changes and US Policy2 Federal Aviation Administration2.1 Roles of the Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transport2.2 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transport Licensing2.3 Requirements for Initial Licensing Considerations2.4 Assessing Launch Risk2.5 Launch Application and License2.6 Licensing and Orbital Debris2.7 Debris Avoidance from Collision2.8 End of Operations3 Federal Communications Commission3.1 Authority to License3.2 Licensing Requirements3.3 Title 47 c.f.r. (Telecommunication) and New Orbital Debris Rules3.3.1 Title 47 c.f.r. Part 5—Experimental Radio Service, 47 c.f.r. §5.64(b)-Special Provisions for Satellite Systems3.3.2 Title 47 c.f.r. Part 25—Satellite Communications3.3.3 Title 47 c.f.r. Part 97—Space Station3.4 Evolution of fcc Efforts toward Addressing Orbital Debris Mitigation Efforts3.5 fcc and the Way Ahead4 The US National Space Council5 Conclusion5 China1 Introduction to the Chinese Space Program2 Background of the Development of the Chinese Space Program3 The Modern Chinese Space Program4 The Legislative Governance Elements of the Chinese Space Program4.1 China’s Civil Space Program Management5 Chinese Regulatory Efforts toward Sustainability and Orbital Debris5.1 China and International Space Agreements5.2 Chinese Regulations Based on International Commitments5.3 Domestic Departmental-Level Regulations5.3.1 China’s Existing Space Regulations—2001 Measures for the Administration of Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space5.3.2 China’s Existing Space Regulations—the Interim Measures on the Administration of Licensing the Project of Launching Civil Space5.4 The 2010 Interim Instrument on Space Debris Mitigation and Management Instrument6 China’s Space Policy—the Chinese White Papers6.1 The 2000 China Space White Paper6.2 The 2006 China Space White Paper6.3 The 2011 China Space White Paper6.4 The 2016 China White Paper6.5 The 2021 China White Paper6.6 Words versus Actions—Are the Chinese Actually Committed to the Space Sustainability Discussed in Their White Papers?7 Conclusion—the Future of China’s Space Program6 Russia1 Introduction2 Russian Interpretation of International Law Influencing Russian Space Law2.1 Overview of Russian Approach to International Law2.2 Modern Russian Approach to International Law3 Russia’s Domestic Implementation of Obligations under International Space Law3.1 Russian Domestic Space Debris Regulatory Scheme3.1.1 Russian Domestic Regulatory Scheme—Decree No. 5663–1, about Space Activities3.2 Licensing in Russia3.3 Principal Space Debris Regulation—gost p 52925–20183.3.1 Debris Reduction through Design3.3.2 Debris Reduction during Operations3.3.3 Debris Reduction during Post-mission Disposal4 Conclusion7 European Space Agency1 Introduction2 esa Today2.1 esa Membership2.2 esa Programs and Participant Requirements3 esa and International Legal Standing and Authority3.1 esa and International Agreements3.2 Creation of International Legal Norms—esa Customary International Law3.3 esa and Space Debris Legal Norms4 Specific Efforts at Forming Legal Norms for Space Debris Mitigation and Prevention4.1 esa Space Debris Mitigation Handbook4.2 European Code of Conduct for Space Debris Mitigation4.3 European International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities5 International Organization for Standardization Debris Mitigation Guidelines5.1 iso and esa Adoption of Debris Standards—iso 24113:2010 through iso 24113:20195.1.1 iso 24113:2019—Space Systems-Space Debris Mitigation Requirements5.2 Progeny of iso 24113:2019—Debris Mitigation for Spacecraft and Launch Vehicles5.2.1 Space Debris Mitigation Requirements for Spacecraft—iso 16164:2015, iso 26872:2019, iso 23339:2012, iso 16127:20145.2.2 Space Debris Mitigation Requirements for Launch Vehicles6 Beyond esa iso Standards6.1 European Union Space Strategy for Europe7 Conclusion8 Does Existing Space Debris Guidance Establish Customary International Law?1 Introduction2 Beyond Legacy iadc and UN copuos—Recent Voluntary Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines2.1 Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space Guidelines for the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities2.1.1 UN copuos lts Guidelines—Policy and Regulatory Framework2.1.2 UN copuos lts Guidelines—Safety of Space Operations2.1.3 UN copuos lts Guidelines—International Cooperation and Capacity Building and Awareness2.1.4 UN copuos lts Guidelines—Scientific and Technical Research and Development2.1.5 UN copuos lts Guidelines—the Way Ahead2.2 Background—Space Safety Coalition Best Practices for the Sustainability of Space Operations Guidelines2.2.1 ssc Sustainability Practices3 Can Customary International Law Be Found as a Result of Nation-State Implementation of Orbital Debris Prevention and Mitigation Efforts?3.1 The Seven Mitigation Themes3.1.1 Theme 1—Debris Mitigation Is to Be Considered during All Stages of a Space Project3.1.2 Theme 2—Release of Space Debris during Normal Operations Is to be Limited3.1.3 Theme 3—Efforts Should Be Expended to Avoid Collisions in Orbit3.1.4 Theme 4—Risk of Breakups during Operational Phases is to be Minimized3.1.5 Theme 5—the Potential for Post-mission Breakups Resulting from Stored Energy Should Be Minimized by Passivation3.1.6 Theme 6—If Not Destroyed by Atmospheric Methods, Post-mission Disposal of Space Objects Away from leo and geo Is to Be Arranged3.1.7 Theme 7—Intentional Destruction and Other Harmful Activities Are to Be Avoided4 Do Any Similarities in the Way Nations Implement the Standards Represented within the Themes Meet the Standards of Customary International Law?4.1 The 25 Year ‘Rule’5 Conclusion9 Where Do We Go from Here?1 Introduction2 Is Soft Law Appropriate to Address the Space Debris Issue at All?2.1 Though Soft Law Is Not a Likely Solution, Treaty Law Is Equally Elusive to Solve the Problem3 Is New Governance the Answer? Evolving Space Governance—Past, Present and Future3.1 Space Governance—Where We Were3.2 Space Governance—Where We Are3.3 Space Governance—Do We Need a Different Governance Model (Where Are We Going)?4 One Key Option to Solve the Debris Problem—Active Debris Removal and Legal Challenges4.1 Background on Modern adr Efforts4.2 Current Major adr Efforts4.2.1 Lasers4.2.2 Solar Sails4.2.3 Harpoons4.2.4 Grappling Arms/Claws4.2.5 System Capture and Containment4.3 Legal Challenges to Implementation of adr4.4 Recommendations to Address Debris Removal Legal Challenges4.4.1 Instant Customary International Law in Practice5 A Need to “Go It Alone” to Establish Customary International Law?5.1 “Going It Alone”—Principles for Successful Independent adr Activity6 ConclusionReferencesIndex