Annals of the ICRP – serie

The document attempts a wide-ranging comparative survey of scientific reports on high-LET mutagenesis. It considers the implication of this data for radiological protection. It includes information on the effects of high and low doses administered at high and low dose rates. The distinction between high- and low-LET radiation is also discussed.

A unique comprehensive work on the reference male and female, including data on mass of the various organs of the body, chemical composition of the body and various tissues and physiological data. While still the major source of reference data, this report is supplemented and amended by ICRP Publication 89.

The International Commission on Radiological Protection has given general guidance on the precautions to be taken in the storage, handling and disposal of unsealed radioactive material in hospitals and medical research establishments in ICRP Publication 5. The present publication replaces the previous recommendations of the Commission given in ICRP Publication 5 and is primarily directed towards the competent national authorities. By utilizing the practices outlined in the present report, it should be possible to keep radiation doses well below the maximum permissible levels recommended by the Commission. National regulatory authorities should, however, draw up the necessary local standards and control procedures. The Commission believes that the information given can be utilized also by the local medical and research institutions and to some extent be applicable to other types of laboratories where radioactive substances are used. This report is concerned with the problems which arise owing to the use of unsealed radioactive substances in therapy, diagnosis and research.

Inhalation of radionuclides leads to problems of spatial distribution of radiation dose within tissues. The variables are considerable: specific activity of the radionuclide and its concentration of radiation emitted, concentration of radiation sources (single relatively active particles versus many particles of low specific activity), radioactive decay, degree of particulate aggregation, cellular interactions and movement of particles within the tissue, solubility, presence of other toxic materials, state of health of the tissue containing the particle, and so forth. The problem is so complex that it has not been feasible to approach all aspects experimentally: therefore specific radiation protection criteria for inhaled particles are continually evaluated as new research is completed. This report focuses on various types of radionuclides that may be inhaled and deposited in the respiratory tract. One of the primary goals of this ICRP Task Group is to assess specifically the biological implications of inhaled plutonium. Because other transuranics are becoming more abundant, information on americium, curium and einsteinium is included. Data are also included from studies of polonium and of several beta-gamma emitting isotopes.

The first of a series of reports recommending Annual Limits for Intakes (ALI’s) of radionuclides by workers. This report includes the main text for the whole series of Publication 30, and data on twenty one elements having radioisotopes that are of considerable importance in radiological protection. The actual ALI values in ICRP Publication 30 have become obsolete with the newer dosimetry and dose limits of ICRP Publication 60, and at present the dose coefficients in ICRP Publications 68, 69, 71, and 72 should be used to determine ALI’s. However, the vast body of biokinetic information in Publication 30 still forms the basis of much of the calculations underlying those later reports.

This part gives metabolic data for 30 further elements, including Annual Limits on Intakes (ALI’s) for their isotopes. The data given in this report are intended to be used together with the text and dosimetric models described in ICRP Publication 30, Part 1.

This supplement gives relevant dosimetric data for radionuclides considered in ICRP Publication Number 30, Part 2.

One of a series of reports recommending Annual Limits for Intakes (ALI’s) of radionuclides by workers. The data given in this report is intended to be used in conjunction with text and dosimetric models described in Part 1 of the ICRP Publication 30.

One of the occupational risks of mining ore results from the exposure of miners to airborne radon gases (222Rn, 220Rn) and their short-lived decay products (radon daughters). The inhalation of these radionuclides constitutes the most important occupational exposure in mines, especially in uranium mines. A previous report of the ICRP outlined the principles of monitoring and limitation of radiation exposure in uranium and other mines (IC 77b). It should be noted that radon and its daughters are also present in atmospheric and room air. The inhalation of these radionuclides constitutes a substantial fraction of the radiation exposure of the population from natural radiation sources.

A subject index and a comprehensive index of radionuclides considered in all parts and supplements of ICRP Publication 30.

This report is intended to guide radiologists and others concerned with diagnostic radiology with regard to the factors that influence radiation doses, and hence radiation risks, from different types of X-ray examination. It supersedes Publication Number 16 on the same subject.

ICRP Publication 26 summarized the recommended basic system of dose limitation into three interrelated components, abbreviated as:(i) The justification of the practice.(ii) The optimization of radiation protection.(iii) The limits of the individual dos equivalent.This report is concerned primarily with the second of these components of te system of dose limitation, the optimization of radiation protection, and with the rationale and techniques to establish what is reasonably achievable in the control of radiation exposures. A wide range of techniques is available to optimize radiation protection. Some of these techniques are drawn from operational research, some from economics and some from engineering. The use of a given technique implies, explicitly or implicitly, value judgements about the possible objectives of optimization. Techniques for use in the optimization of radiation protection include, but are not confined to, the procedures based on cost-benefit analysis and it is these procedures that are discussed in detail in this report. It is important to recognize that other techniques, some quantitative, some more qualitative, may also be used in the optimization of radiation protection.

This report is a revision of ICRP Publication No 13. The recommendations it contains apply to the protection of pupils/students from ionizing radiation. They apply mainly to the teaching of natural science at secondary level, but they may be adapted to some forms of tertiary education.

This publication is concerned with exposures of patients resulting from the administration of radiopharmaceuticals for diagnostic, therapeutic and research purposes, including some recommendations on protection of the patient’s family. The report advises on the factors that influence absorbed doses (and hence radiation risks) to patients from different types of nuclear medicine examinations and indicates ways by which these risks can be minimized without detriment to intended medical benefits. This report supersedes ICRP publication 17 and, together with ICRP publications 34 and 44, completes a series of three reports dealing with protection of the patient exposed to ionizing radiation in medicine. It should be read in conjunction with ICRP Publication 53, Radiation Dose to Patients from Radiopharmaceuticals.

In 1977, the International Commission on Radiological Protection issued ICRP Publication 27, “Problems Involved in Developing an Index of Harm”. That report discussed the difficulties of making an appropriate comparison of radiation and other effects and suggested a quantitative index to take account of the length of life or full activity lost as a result of occupational causes. This new report substantially extends the scope of ICRP Publication 27, by including new data on occupational accident risks as well as a consideration of radiation induced non-fatal cancers, non-stochastic effects and hereditary detriment. An appendix discussing assessments of detriment in sections of the general public due to exposure to ionising radiation is also included.

The purpose of this report is to describe the principles and applications of methods by which radiation hazards may be controlled in mines. Although primarily directed to the uranium mining industry, the information presented in this report may be applied in varying degree to all mines. Miners are exposed to airborne radon, thoron, and their short-lived decay products, to ore dust and, in some mines (particularly uranium and thorium mines) to external gamma and beta radiations. In general, the short-lived radon decay products present the dominant radiation risk. Radon is a member of the decay chain of uranium which makes up about 3 ppm of the earth’s crust. Consequently, radon is not limited to mines; it occurs everywhere, outdoors in usually low concentrations and indoors in higher concentrations. In underground mines, the concentration of these radioactive contaminants, in the absence of adequate control measures, can reach relatively high values. The scope of this report excludes the treatment of the other hazards, mechanical and toxic, that are characteristic of all mining operations. However, the protective measures developed to control radiation exposures may influence the situation regarding other hazards.

This publication is intended to review, update and extend the information on the metabolism of plutonium, neptunium and the trivalent actinides, previously reviewed in ICRP Publication 19, with special reference to the absorption from the gastro-intestinal tract, the retention times in liver and skeleton, the influence of bone remodelling on the microdistribution within the skeleton and the relation of actinide metabolism to that of other radionuclides. This report is intended to complement, rather than replace, the original report and it has not been thought appropriate to reproduce all the extensive data presented in ICRP Publication 19. The new report follows the general patter of the first one, beginning with a short overview of some salient features of the chemistry of the actinides in mammalian systems and then reviewing the behaviour of the elements following entry by inhalation, by ingestion, or through the skin. The penultimate chapter reviews the retention of plutonium and the actinides in liver, bone, gonads and the other organs of the human body.

ICRP Publication 21 contained data for protection against ionizing radiation from external sources. The data were of two kinds, one on the relationships between various radiation quantities, the other on the shielding properties of various materials. Some revised shielding data are now in ICRP Publication 33, which deals with external sources used in medicine: the other kind of data is considered here, but is not intended to apply to the irradiation of patients. The main reason for this revision is to adapt the data and the underlying approach to the Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection in ICRP Publication 26 and later relevant modifications. It is also necessary to take account of the report on radiation quantities and units from the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements and a subsequent report on the determination of dose equivalents. The third reason is to improve the original publication be amending or replacing some data.

This publication presents biokinetic models and best estimates of biokinetic data for some 120 individual radiopharmaceuticals, giving estimated absorbed doses, including the range of variation to be expected in pathological states, for adults, children and the fetus. Absorbed dose estimates are needed in clinical diagnostic work for judging the risk associated with the use of specific radiopharmaceuticals, both for comparison with the possible benefit of the investigation and to help in giving adequate information to the patient. These estimates provide guidance to ethics committees having to decide upon research projects involving the use of radioactive substances in volunteers who receive no individual benefit from the study. This report, while still an important source document, is supplemented and amended by ICRP Publication 80.

This document provides the Commission's recommendations for the design of individual monitoring programmes and the interpretation of results of measurements of intakes of radionuclides by radiation workers. It follows the Commission's general principles of monitoring for radiation protection of workers (ICRP, 1977a) and should be used in conjunction with those principles. The main objective of the document is to give specific guidance on the design of monitoring programmes, the calculation of derived reference levels and the interpretation of monitoring results. Since models are required to provide a link between the measured quantity and the appropriate limits or reference levels, the document also gives general guidance on the models used. Finally, specific values of derived reference levels are given for radionuclides chosen for their potential importance in occupational exposure; these levels have been calculated for intake by inhalation only since this is the most likely route of intake. The Commission wishes to emphasis that the parameters used and the reference levels calculated in this document are appropriate for occupationally exposed adults only and that they are not intended to be used to evaluate exposure for members of the general public.

One of a series of reports recommending Annual Limits for Intakes (ALI’s) of radionuclides by workers. Includes ICRP Progress Report on the Preparation of the New Recommendations.

The Task Group of Committee 4 was originally established to produce a report on methods of optimizing radiological protection other than cost benefit analysis. As the work of the Task Group progressed, however, it became clear that it would be more useful to produce a report that considered all aspects of optimization, including cost benefit. This report therefore considers various techniques and their application to problems at different levels of complexity.

This report investigates data on RBE - the Relative Biological Effectiveness - of various types of radiation to assess whether, for specific tissues, the present dose limits or annual limits of intake, based on Q values, and intended to limit the incidence of stochastic effects, are adequate to prevent deterministic effects. The report addresses the problems of accidental exposures as well as chronic irradiation. Also included is the RBE values for the deterministic effects associated with alpha and beta emitting radionuclides in the lungs with particular reference to nuclides and irradiation times of interest for accidental conditions.

In March 1987 the International Commission on Radiological Protection established a Task Group which was requested “to evaluate dose per unit intake for members of the public.” In Section I, this report incorporates age-dependent physical models and appropriate biokinetic information. Section II reports on doses per unit intake of isotopes of hydrogen, carbon, strontium, zirconium, niobium, ruthenium, iodine, caesium, cerium, plutonium, americium and neptunium. Detailed appendices give extensive information on bone models for actinides, and inhalation dose coefficients.

In Establishments for medical diagnosis, treatment and research, widespread use is made of ionizing radiations from x-ray and other machines and from radionuclides. This report discusses the protection measures applicable to workers involved either directly or indirectly in such uses; in particular, it deals with the protection measures applicable to radiologists, radiation oncologists, nuclear medicine physicians, medical physicists, radiographers, scientists, technicians, radiopharmacists, engineers, nurses and others (such are cardiologists and orthopaedic surgeons), when their work involves exposure to radiation. This report is directed particularly towards the managing authority in each hospital or medical establishment and to the workers involved in work with radiation at such establishments. However, the report is also drawn to the attention of the relevant statutory authorities, whether national, regional or local, that are responsible for the enforcement of safety standards and for establishing training standards for workers.

The International Commission on Radiological Protection issued its last basic recommendations in 1977. The recommendations have been used widely throughout the world to limit exposure of both radiation workers and members of the public to ionising radiations. Supplementary statements to the 1977 recommendations were issued when necessary by the Commission, but developments in the last few years have made it necessary to issue a completely new set of recommendations, officially adopted in November 1990. In publishing these recommendations, the Commission has had three aims in mind: to take account of new biological information and of trends in the setting of safety standards; to improve the presentation of the recommendations; and to maintain as much stability in the recommendations as is consistent with the new information. The recommendations are set out in the form of a main text supported by annexes. The main text contains all the recommendations, together with sufficient explanatory material to make clear the underlying reasoning for policy makers. The supporting annexes contain more detailed scientific information on specific points for specialists.

This report describes a revision of the model used in ICRP Publication 30 to calculate radiation doses to the respiratory tract of workers resulting from the intake of airborne radionuclides. This revision was motivated by the availability of increased knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory tract and of the deposition, clearance, and biological effects of inhaled radioactive particles, and by greatly expanded dosimetry requirements. To meet fully the needs of radiation protection, a dosimetric model for the respiratory tract should: provide calculations of doses for individual members of the populations of all ethnic groups, in addition to workers; be useful for predictive and assessment purposes as well as for deriving limits on intakes; account for the influence of smoking, air pollutants, and respiratory tract diseases; provide for estimates of respiratory tract tissue doses from bioassay data; and be equally applicable to radioactive gases as well as to particles. Addressing all of these requirements has resulted in a dosimetry model that is more complex than previous models.

In March 1987 the International Commission on Radiological Protection established a Task Group of Committee 2 “to evaluate dose per unit intake for members of the public”. In this, the second of two reports given by the Task Group, ingestion dose coefficients are given for isotopes of sulphur, cobalt, nickel, zinc, molybdenum, technetium, silver, tellurium and polonium using the new tissue weighting factors (wT) given by the Commission in its 1990 Recommendations. Revised ingestion dose coefficients are also included for the radioisotopes given in Part 1 using the new wT values. In addition, ingestion dose coefficients are given for further radioisotopes. A generic model for the biokinetics of lead and the alkaline earths strontium, barium and radium has been introduced for calculating ingestion dose coefficients for radioisotopes of these elements. This model has been applied to the recalculation of the ingestion dose coefficients for Sr-90, the only strontium isotope considered in Part 1. The ICRP has now given new wT values for the urinary bladder and colon, and new information has become available on the biokinetics of plutonium, americium and neptunium in humans. As a result the Task Group considered it appropriate to revise the biokinetic models for these elements given in Part 1.

At its meeting in Como, Italy, in September of 1987 the Commission approved a proposal by its Committee 1 on Radiation Effects to set up a Task Group on Risk to evaluate the new estimates of cancer risk, genetic risk and the risk to the fetus that were being developed by committees such as United Nations Scientific Committee on the effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) and U.S. National Academy of Sciences Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations (BEIR). Eventually as the programme of the Commission evolved in the preparation of new radiation protection recommendations (ICRP Publication 60, 1991), the work of this Task Group became part of the background on which Annex B, “Biological Effects of Ionising Radiation” in the new recommendations, was based.