Chapman & Hall/CRC Internet of Things - Böcker

The book Security of Internet of Things Nodes: Challenges, Attacks, and Countermeasures® covers a wide range of research topics on the security of the Internet of Things nodes along with the latest research development in the domain of Internet of Things. It also covers various algorithms, techniques, and schemes in the field of computer science with state-of-the-art tools and technologies. This book mainly focuses on the security challenges of the Internet of Things devices and the countermeasures to overcome security vulnerabilities. Also, it highlights trust management issues on the Internet of Things nodes to build secured Internet of Things systems. The book also covers the necessity of a system model for the Internet of Things devices to ensure security at the hardware level.

The book Security of Internet of Things Nodes: Challenges, Attacks, and Countermeasures® covers a wide range of research topics on the security of the Internet of Things nodes along with the latest research development in the domain of Internet of Things. It also covers various algorithms, techniques, and schemes in the field of computer science with state-of-the-art tools and technologies. This book mainly focuses on the security challenges of the Internet of Things devices and the countermeasures to overcome security vulnerabilities. Also, it highlights trust management issues on the Internet of Things nodes to build secured Internet of Things systems. The book also covers the necessity of a system model for the Internet of Things devices to ensure security at the hardware level.

Agriculture plays a vital role in a country’s growth. Modern-day technologies drive every domain toward smart systems. The use of traditional agricultural procedures to satisfy modern-day requirements is a challenging task. Cloud IoT Systems for Smart Agricultural Engineering provides substantial coverage of various challenges of the agriculture domain through modern technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing, and many more.This book offers various state-of-the-art procedures to be deployed in a wide range of agricultural activities. The concepts are discussed with the necessary implementations and clear examples. Necessary illustrations are depicted in the chapters to ensure the effective delivery of the proposed concepts. It presents the rapid advancement of the technologies in the existing agricultural model by applying the cloud IoT techniques. A wide variety of novel architectural solutions are discussed in various chapters of this book.This book provides comprehensive coverage of the most essential topics, including: New approaches on urban and vertical farming Smart crop management for Indian farmers Smart livestock management Precision agriculture using geographical information systems Machine learning techniques combined with IoT for smart agriculture Effective use of drones in smart agricultureThis book provides solutions for the diverse domain of problems in agricultural engineering. It can be used at the basic and intermediary levels for agricultural science and engineering graduate students, researchers, and practitioners.

Agriculture plays a vital role in a country’s growth. Modern-day technologies drive every domain toward smart systems. The use of traditional agricultural procedures to satisfy modern-day requirements is a challenging task. Cloud IoT Systems for Smart Agricultural Engineering provides substantial coverage of various challenges of the agriculture domain through modern technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing, and many more.This book offers various state-of-the-art procedures to be deployed in a wide range of agricultural activities. The concepts are discussed with the necessary implementations and clear examples. Necessary illustrations are depicted in the chapters to ensure the effective delivery of the proposed concepts. It presents the rapid advancement of the technologies in the existing agricultural model by applying the cloud IoT techniques. A wide variety of novel architectural solutions are discussed in various chapters of this book.This book provides comprehensive coverage of the most essential topics, including: New approaches on urban and vertical farming Smart crop management for Indian farmers Smart livestock management Precision agriculture using geographical information systems Machine learning techniques combined with IoT for smart agriculture Effective use of drones in smart agricultureThis book provides solutions for the diverse domain of problems in agricultural engineering. It can be used at the basic and intermediary levels for agricultural science and engineering graduate students, researchers, and practitioners.

Cancer Prediction for Industrial IoT 4.0: A Machine Learning Perspective explores various cancers using Artificial Intelligence techniques. It presents the rapid advancement in the existing prediction models by applying Machine Learning techniques. Several applications of Machine Learning in different cancer prediction and treatment options are discussed, including specific ideas, tools and practices most applicable to product/service development and innovation opportunities. The wide variety of topics covered offers readers multiple perspectives on various disciplines.Features• Covers the fundamentals, history, reality and challenges of cancer• Presents concepts and analysis of different cancers in humans• Discusses Machine Learning-based deep learning and data mining concepts in the prediction of cancer• Offers real-world examples of cancer prediction • Reviews strategies and tools used in cancer prediction• Explores the future prospects in cancer prediction and treatmentReaders will learn the fundamental concepts and analysis of cancer prediction and treatment, including how to apply emerging technologies such as Machine Learning into practice to tackle challenges in domains/fields of cancer with real-world scenarios. Hands-on chapters contributed by academicians and other professionals from reputed organizations provide and describe frameworks, applications, best practices and case studies on emerging cancer treatment and predictions.This book will be a vital resource to graduate students, data scientists, Machine Learning researchers, medical professionals and analytics managers.

Cancer Prediction for Industrial IoT 4.0: A Machine Learning Perspective explores various cancers using Artificial Intelligence techniques. It presents the rapid advancement in the existing prediction models by applying Machine Learning techniques. Several applications of Machine Learning in different cancer prediction and treatment options are discussed, including specific ideas, tools and practices most applicable to product/service development and innovation opportunities. The wide variety of topics covered offers readers multiple perspectives on various disciplines.Features• Covers the fundamentals, history, reality and challenges of cancer• Presents concepts and analysis of different cancers in humans• Discusses Machine Learning-based deep learning and data mining concepts in the prediction of cancer• Offers real-world examples of cancer prediction • Reviews strategies and tools used in cancer prediction• Explores the future prospects in cancer prediction and treatmentReaders will learn the fundamental concepts and analysis of cancer prediction and treatment, including how to apply emerging technologies such as Machine Learning into practice to tackle challenges in domains/fields of cancer with real-world scenarios. Hands-on chapters contributed by academicians and other professionals from reputed organizations provide and describe frameworks, applications, best practices and case studies on emerging cancer treatment and predictions.This book will be a vital resource to graduate students, data scientists, Machine Learning researchers, medical professionals and analytics managers.

SDN-Supported Edge-Cloud Interplay for Next Generation Internet of Things is an invaluable resource coveringa wide range of research directions in the field of edge-cloud computing, SDN, and IoT. The integration of SDN in edge-cloud interplay is a promising framework for enhancing the QoS for complex IoT-driven applications. The interplay between cloud and edge solves some of the major challenges that arise in traditional IoT architecture. This book is a starting point for those involved in this research domain and explores a range of significant issues including network congestion, traffic management, latency, QoS, scalability, security, and controller placement problems.Features:The book covers emerging trends, issues and solutions in the direction of Edge-cloud interplayIt highlights the research advances in on SDN, edge, and IoT architecture for smart cities, and software-defined internet of vehiclesIt includes detailed discussion has made of performance evaluations of SDN controllers, scalable software-defined edge computing, and AI for edge computingApplications areas include machine learning and deep learning in SDN-supported edge-cloud systemsDifferent use cases covered include smart health care, smart city, internet of drones, etcThis book is designed for scientific communities including graduate students, academicians, and industry professionals who are interested in exploring technologies related to the internet of things such as cloud, SDN, edge, internet of drones, etc.

Data Science for Effective Healthcare Systems has a prime focus on the importance of data science in the healthcare domain. Various applications of data science in the health care domain have been studied to find possible solutions. In this period of COVID-19 pandemic data science and allied areas plays a vital role to deal with various aspect of health care. Image processing, detection & prevention from COVID-19 virus, drug discovery, early prediction, and prevention of diseases are some thrust areas where data science has proven to be indispensable.Key Features:The book offers comprehensive coverage of the most essential topics, including:Big Data Analytics, Applications & Challenges in HealthcareDescriptive, Predictive and Prescriptive Analytics in HealthcareArtificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Deep Learning and IoT in HealthcareData Science in Covid-19, Diabetes, Coronary Heart Diseases, Breast Cancer, Brain TumorThe aim of this book is also to provide the future scope of these technologies in the health care domain. Last but not the least, this book will surely benefit research scholar, persons associated with healthcare, faculty, research organizations, and students to get insights into these emerging technologies in the healthcare domain.

This book is written in a clear and thorough way to cover both the traditional and modern uses of artificial intelligence and soft computing. It gives an in-depth look at mathematical models, algorithms, and real-world problems that are hard to solve in MATLAB. The book is intended to provide a broad and in-depth understanding of fuzzy logic controllers, genetic algorithms, neural networks, and hybrid techniques such as ANFIS and the GA-ANN model.Features:A detailed description of basic intelligent techniques (fuzzy logic, genetic algorithm and neural network using MATLAB)A detailed description of the hybrid intelligent technique called the adaptive fuzzy inference technique (ANFIS)Formulation of the nonlinear model like analysis of ANOVA and response surface methodologyVariety of solved problems on ANOVA and RSMCase studies of above mentioned intelligent techniques on the different process control systemsThis book can be used as a handbook and a guide for students of all engineering disciplines, operational research areas, computer applications, and for various professionals who work in the optimization area.

This book focusses on the Internet of Things (IoT) and Data Mining for Modern Engineering and Healthcare Applications and the recent technological advancements in Microwave Engineering, Communication and applicability of newly developed Solid State Technologies in Bio-medical Engineering and Health-Care.The Reader will be able to know the recent advancements in Microwave Engineering including novel techniques in Microwave Antenna Design and various aspects of Microwave Propagation. This book aims to showcase, the various aspects of Communication, Networking, Data Mining, Computational Biology, Bioinformatics, Bio-Statistics and Machine Learning.In this book, recent trends in Solid State Technologies, VLSI and applicability of modern Electronic Devices in Bio-informatics and Health-Care is focused. Furthermore, this book showcases the modern optimization techniques in Power System Engineering, Machine Design and Power Systems.This Book highlights the Internet of Things (IoT) and Data Mining for Modern Engineering and Healthcare Applications and the recent technological advancements in Microwave Engineering, Communication and applicability of newly developed Solid State Technologies in Bio-medical Engineering and Health-Care for day-to-day applications.Societal benefits of Microwave Technologies for smooth and hustle-free life are also areas of major focus. Microwave Engineering includes recent advancements and novel techniques in Microwave Antenna Design and various aspects of Microwave Propagation.Day-to-Day applicability of modern communication and networking technologies are a matter of prime concern. This book aims to showcase, the various aspects of Communication, Networking, Data Mining, Computational Biology, Bioinformatics, Bio-Statistics and Machine Learning.Role of Solid Sate Engineering in development of modern electronic gadgets are discussed. In this book, recent trends in Solid State Technologies, VLSI and applicability of modern Electronic Devices in Bio-informatics and Biosensing Devices for Smart Health care are also discussed.Features:This book features Internet of Things (IoT) and Data Mining for Modern Engineering and Healthcare Applications and the recent technological advancements in Microwave Engineering, Communication and applicability of newly developed Solid State Technologies in Bio-medical Engineering and Smart Health-Care TechnologiesShowcases the novel techniques in Internet of Things (IoT) integrated Microwave Antenna Design and various aspects of Microwave CommunicationHighlights the role of Internet of Things (IoT) various aspects of Communication, Networking, Data Mining, Computational Biology, Bioinformatics, Bio-Statistics and Machine LearningReviews the role of Internet of Things (IoT) in Solid State Technologies, VLSI and applicability of modern Electronic Devices in Bio-informatics and Health-CareIn this book, role of Internet of Things (IoT) in Power System Engineering, Optics, RF and Microwave Energy Harvesting and Smart Biosensing Technologies are also highlighted

Energy Harvesting: Enabling IoT Transformations gives insight into the emergence of energy harvesting technology and its integration with IoT-based applications. The book educates the reader on how energy is harvested from different sources, increasing the effectiveness, efficiency and lifetime of IoT devices.• Discusses the technology and practices involved in energy harvesting for biomedical, agriculture and automobile industries• Compares the performance of IoT-based devices with and without energy harvesting for different applications• Studies the challenges and issues in the implementation of EH-IoT• Includes case studies on energy-harvesting approach for solar, thermal and RF sources• Analyzes the market and business opportunities for entrepreneurs in the field of EH-IoT.This book is primarily aimed at graduates and research scholars in wireless sensor networks. Scientists and R&D workers in industry will also find this book useful.

This book is a compendium of various applications and current progress in a powerful technology known as the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT provides a system of interconnecting things such as vehicles, electrical equipment, agriculture devices, etc. Such items are allocated with the computing device so that they can use a network to transfer data to one another and automate their actions on certain events.Internet of Things: Applications for Sustainable Development will throw light on recent developments in the latest field and will be of great interest to know various application areas for sustainable development. This book mainly focuses on the current state of the art, including protocol design and low-cost sensor design, for the sustainable development of society using IoT.The sustainable development areas include climate, healthcare systems, electrical systems, and energy that can meet present and next-generation advancement using IoT. Sustainable development faces various issues, challenges, opportunities, and future enhancements with the latest technologies, hardware, and software.Features:A real-world problem-solving approach for diversified problemsPotential contributors from industries/academia have been given the opportunity to publish their workIdentification of various challenges in IoT for future contributionsDiversified coverage of the book, including applications, securities, industrialization, automation, etcIoT for the sustainable development areasThis book will offer strong support as a reference book for students, practitioners, researchers, and scientific investigators worldwide, as well as anyone who wants to set up IoT-enabled industries. It provides pertinent industries with new ideas and innovations to visionaries.

This book is a compendium of various applications and current progress in a powerful technology known as the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT provides a system of interconnecting things such as vehicles, electrical equipment, agriculture devices, etc. Such items are allocated with the computing device so that they can use a network to transfer data to one another and automate their actions on certain events.Internet of Things: Applications for Sustainable Development will throw light on recent developments in the latest field and will be of great interest to know various application areas for sustainable development. This book mainly focuses on the current state of the art, including protocol design and low-cost sensor design, for the sustainable development of society using IoT.The sustainable development areas include climate, healthcare systems, electrical systems, and energy that can meet present and next-generation advancement using IoT. Sustainable development faces various issues, challenges, opportunities, and future enhancements with the latest technologies, hardware, and software.Features:A real-world problem-solving approach for diversified problemsPotential contributors from industries/academia have been given the opportunity to publish their workIdentification of various challenges in IoT for future contributionsDiversified coverage of the book, including applications, securities, industrialization, automation, etcIoT for the sustainable development areasThis book will offer strong support as a reference book for students, practitioners, researchers, and scientific investigators worldwide, as well as anyone who wants to set up IoT-enabled industries. It provides pertinent industries with new ideas and innovations to visionaries.

This book involves the design, analysis, and application of various cognitive predictive maintenance tests with the help of tools like vibration analysis, ultrasonic analysis, infrared analysis, oil analysis, laser-shaft alignment, and motor circuit analysis in the prediction of various cognitive diseases such as epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and depression. These are needed since there are no proper medical tests available to predict these diseases in remote areas at an early stage. Various emerging technologies are analyzed for the design of tests.Key features: Incorporates innovative processes for treating cognitive diseases. Early and exact identification and treatment strategies are incorporated. Future technologies like artificial intelligence, machine learning, the IoT, and data science are used to find solutions. Analysis with existing cognitive disease solutions is incorporated and simulations provided. The novelty of the book lies in the accurate prediction of cognitive diseases.Encompassing future technologies and various communication protocols or devices available for cognitive diseases for the design of new equipment are an outcome of the book. Various parameters like power consumption, productivity, and safety should be taken into account during the analysis, design, and application of a product. The book could well be added to the curriculum of medical colleges and biomedical engineering students. Possible vendors include biomedical research centers like Biotechnika and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). It would be a breakthrough for biomedical companies to launch their new products.

Data Science for Effective Healthcare Systems has a prime focus on the importance of data science in the healthcare domain. Various applications of data science in the health care domain have been studied to find possible solutions. In this period of COVID-19 pandemic data science and allied areas plays a vital role to deal with various aspect of health care. Image processing, detection & prevention from COVID-19 virus, drug discovery, early prediction, and prevention of diseases are some thrust areas where data science has proven to be indispensable.Key Features:The book offers comprehensive coverage of the most essential topics, including:Big Data Analytics, Applications & Challenges in HealthcareDescriptive, Predictive and Prescriptive Analytics in HealthcareArtificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Deep Learning and IoT in HealthcareData Science in Covid-19, Diabetes, Coronary Heart Diseases, Breast Cancer, Brain TumorThe aim of this book is also to provide the future scope of these technologies in the health care domain. Last but not the least, this book will surely benefit research scholar, persons associated with healthcare, faculty, research organizations, and students to get insights into these emerging technologies in the healthcare domain.

This book focusses on the Internet of Things (IoT) and Data Mining for Modern Engineering and Healthcare Applications and the recent technological advancements in Microwave Engineering, Communication and applicability of newly developed Solid State Technologies in Bio-medical Engineering and Health-Care.The Reader will be able to know the recent advancements in Microwave Engineering including novel techniques in Microwave Antenna Design and various aspects of Microwave Propagation. This book aims to showcase, the various aspects of Communication, Networking, Data Mining, Computational Biology, Bioinformatics, Bio-Statistics and Machine Learning.In this book, recent trends in Solid State Technologies, VLSI and applicability of modern Electronic Devices in Bio-informatics and Health-Care is focused. Furthermore, this book showcases the modern optimization techniques in Power System Engineering, Machine Design and Power Systems.This Book highlights the Internet of Things (IoT) and Data Mining for Modern Engineering and Healthcare Applications and the recent technological advancements in Microwave Engineering, Communication and applicability of newly developed Solid State Technologies in Bio-medical Engineering and Health-Care for day-to-day applications.Societal benefits of Microwave Technologies for smooth and hustle-free life are also areas of major focus. Microwave Engineering includes recent advancements and novel techniques in Microwave Antenna Design and various aspects of Microwave Propagation.Day-to-Day applicability of modern communication and networking technologies are a matter of prime concern. This book aims to showcase, the various aspects of Communication, Networking, Data Mining, Computational Biology, Bioinformatics, Bio-Statistics and Machine Learning.Role of Solid Sate Engineering in development of modern electronic gadgets are discussed. In this book, recent trends in Solid State Technologies, VLSI and applicability of modern Electronic Devices in Bio-informatics and Biosensing Devices for Smart Health care are also discussed.Features:This book features Internet of Things (IoT) and Data Mining for Modern Engineering and Healthcare Applications and the recent technological advancements in Microwave Engineering, Communication and applicability of newly developed Solid State Technologies in Bio-medical Engineering and Smart Health-Care TechnologiesShowcases the novel techniques in Internet of Things (IoT) integrated Microwave Antenna Design and various aspects of Microwave CommunicationHighlights the role of Internet of Things (IoT) various aspects of Communication, Networking, Data Mining, Computational Biology, Bioinformatics, Bio-Statistics and Machine LearningReviews the role of Internet of Things (IoT) in Solid State Technologies, VLSI and applicability of modern Electronic Devices in Bio-informatics and Health-CareIn this book, role of Internet of Things (IoT) in Power System Engineering, Optics, RF and Microwave Energy Harvesting and Smart Biosensing Technologies are also highlighted

Energy Harvesting: Enabling IoT Transformations gives insight into the emergence of energy harvesting technology and its integration with IoT-based applications. The book educates the reader on how energy is harvested from different sources, increasing the effectiveness, efficiency and lifetime of IoT devices.• Discusses the technology and practices involved in energy harvesting for biomedical, agriculture and automobile industries• Compares the performance of IoT-based devices with and without energy harvesting for different applications• Studies the challenges and issues in the implementation of EH-IoT• Includes case studies on energy-harvesting approach for solar, thermal and RF sources• Analyzes the market and business opportunities for entrepreneurs in the field of EH-IoT.This book is primarily aimed at graduates and research scholars in wireless sensor networks. Scientists and R&D workers in industry will also find this book useful.

SDN-Supported Edge-Cloud Interplay for Next Generation Internet of Things is an invaluable resource coveringa wide range of research directions in the field of edge-cloud computing, SDN, and IoT. The integration of SDN in edge-cloud interplay is a promising framework for enhancing the QoS for complex IoT-driven applications. The interplay between cloud and edge solves some of the major challenges that arise in traditional IoT architecture. This book is a starting point for those involved in this research domain and explores a range of significant issues including network congestion, traffic management, latency, QoS, scalability, security, and controller placement problems.Features:The book covers emerging trends, issues and solutions in the direction of Edge-cloud interplayIt highlights the research advances in on SDN, edge, and IoT architecture for smart cities, and software-defined internet of vehiclesIt includes detailed discussion has made of performance evaluations of SDN controllers, scalable software-defined edge computing, and AI for edge computingApplications areas include machine learning and deep learning in SDN-supported edge-cloud systemsDifferent use cases covered include smart health care, smart city, internet of drones, etcThis book is designed for scientific communities including graduate students, academicians, and industry professionals who are interested in exploring technologies related to the internet of things such as cloud, SDN, edge, internet of drones, etc.

This book is written in a clear and thorough way to cover both the traditional and modern uses of artificial intelligence and soft computing. It gives an in-depth look at mathematical models, algorithms, and real-world problems that are hard to solve in MATLAB. The book is intended to provide a broad and in-depth understanding of fuzzy logic controllers, genetic algorithms, neural networks, and hybrid techniques such as ANFIS and the GA-ANN model.Features:A detailed description of basic intelligent techniques (fuzzy logic, genetic algorithm and neural network using MATLAB)A detailed description of the hybrid intelligent technique called the adaptive fuzzy inference technique (ANFIS)Formulation of the nonlinear model like analysis of ANOVA and response surface methodologyVariety of solved problems on ANOVA and RSMCase studies of above mentioned intelligent techniques on the different process control systemsThis book can be used as a handbook and a guide for students of all engineering disciplines, operational research areas, computer applications, and for various professionals who work in the optimization area.

This reference book explores the integration of cognitive computing technologies in the automotive industry to enhance smart transportation systems. It focuses on how AI, machine learning, and data analytics can improve vehicle automation, safety, and efficiency. Automation can support driverless vehicle transportation and bridge the gap between manual control and fully automated navigation systems. The text introduces a discussion on numerous applications of cognitive computing in smart transportation, motion planning, situation awareness, dynamic driving, adaptive behavior, human intent measurement, and predictive analysis.Key Features:• Discusses basic concepts and architecture of cognitive computing for vehicular systems.• Presents technologies to measure human intent for vehicle safety, including emergency management systems (EMS).• Covers the perception and localization processes in autonomous driving through LiDAR, GPS, and Stereo vision data with critical decision‑making and simulation results.• Elucidates the application of motion planning for smart transportation.• Covers visual perception technologies for advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) through deep learning.The text is primarily written for graduate students, academic researchers, and professionals in the fields of computer science, electrical engineering, automotive engineering, and civil engineering.

This book offers a detailed exploration of the transformative potential of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Blockchain in reshaping industries. Through a combination of theoretical foundations, practical case studies, and innovative applications, it highlights how these cutting-edge technologies can revolutionise business models, enhance operational efficiency, and foster innovation. This is a helpful guide for scholars, researchers, and professionals engaged in research on the Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Blockchain, and their applications at the industry level.Explains how IoT devices can leverage Blockchain technology to enhance security, transparency, and efficiency in data management and transactionsExplores the security challenges faced by IoT devices and how Blockchain can address these challenges by providing a decentralised and tamper-resistant platform for data exchange and storageInvestigates the potential of cloud-based IoT platforms, analytics, protocols, and business models and renovate the workforce with Industry revolutionDiscusses how companies can leverage the data generated by IoT devices securely through Blockchain-based data marketplacesProvides real-world examples and case studies of successful implementations of IoT and Blockchain technologies across different industries such as healthcare, manufacturing, logistics, and energy

This book explores the critical issue of fairness in human-machine interfaces. It delves into the integration of technology and cognitive science to develop AI systems that are unbiased, reliable, and user-friendly. The book also sheds light on emotional data processing in AI accelerators and federated learning modules. Additionally, it covers machine learning, knowledge representation, and the application of knowledge graphs to understand and optimize the behaviour of AI assistance devices.Features:Explains complex issues of Cognitive Fairness Aware Contextual Proactive Federated Protocol collects data and identifies individual emotional issues and resolves them by contextual solitary proactive communicationDiscusses emotional data processing challenges through AI accelerator with federated learning module to generate periodical counselling messagesAddresses data analysis anomalies in Graph Database Modelling by anom-aly prediction and anomaly detectionDescribes anomaly detection techniques in the form of abnormal data records, messages, events, groups, and/or other unexpected observations in graph database modellingExplains how outlier detection for data analysis deals with the detection of patterns in Graph DatabaseThis book is for researchers, academics, students, AI practitioners and developers, ethics experts in AI technology and machine-learning practitioners interested in fairness in human-machine interfaces.