The Process of Social Research

Jeffrey C. Dixon is Professor of Sociology at the College of the Holy Cross. Royce A. Singleton, Jr. is Professor Emeritus of Sociology at the College of the Holy Cross. Bruce C. Straits is Professor Emeritus of Sociology at the University of California, Santa Barbara.

The Process of Social Research is one of the most approachable, student-centered social research methods texts that I have found. The authors' ability to connect with an undergraduate audience through relevant examples while maintaining the level of scholarship needed for a course like this is commendable.

• Preface CHAPTER 1. Introduction: Why Care About Research Methods? The Process of Social Research Four Social Media Studies An Experiment A Survey A Field Research Study An Analysis of Existing Data BOXREADING SOCIAL RESEARCH 1.1: Critical Evaluation of Facebook Studies CHAPTER 2. Science and Social Research: From Theory to Data and Back The Characteristics and Process of Science Theory Verifiable Data Systematic Observation and Analysis Logical Reasoning Logics of Inquiry Does Contact Change Stereotypes? An Answer from Deductive Inquiry How Does Class Matter? An Answer from Inductive Inquiry Combining the Logics of Inquiry From a Psychological Theory of Suicide to a Sociological One Evaluating Science: Possibilities, Cautions, and Limits Tentative Knowledge The Ideal and Reality of the Scientific Process The Sociohistorical Aspect of Science The Human Element of Science BOXESREADING SOCIAL RESEARCH 2.1: Verify This! CHECKING YOUR UNDERSTANDING 2.2: Identifying and Analyzing Deductive and Inductive Reasoning DOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 2.3: A Replication or Reproducibility Crisis in Social Science? CHAPTER 3. The Ethics and Politics of Research: Doing What's "Right" Overview: Ethics Ethical Issues in the Treatment of Research Participants Potential Harm Informed Consent Deception Invasion of Privacy Federal and Professional Ethical Guidelines Evaluating Potential Harm Informed Consent Procedures Deception Ground Rules Privacy Protection: Anonymity and Confidentiality The Process of Ethical Decision-Making Review Federal Regulations and Professional Ethics Codes Assess Costs and Benefits of Proposed Research Identify and Address Areas of Ethical Concern Prepare and Submit Application for IRB Approval Collect Data and Secure Participants' Rights Politics and Social Research Topic Selection, Political Ideology, and Research Funding Data Analysis and Interpretation and Political Ideology Dissemination of Research Findings: Science, Politics, and Public Policy The Intersection of Ethics and Politics in Social Research A Case Study: Research on Same-Sex Parenting Conflict of Interest Social Responsibility BOXESREADING SOCIAL RESEARCH 3.1: Privacy Invasion in the Public Identification of Participants CHECKING YOUR UNDERSTANDING 3.2: Ethics Practice Questions DOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 3.3: Principles and Recommendations for Ethical Data Collection and Analysis CHAPTER 4. Research Designs: It Depends on the Question Initial Steps in the Research Process Select Research Topic Review the Literature/Consider Theory Formulate Research Question Prepare Research Design Designing Research to Answer Quantitative Questions Select a Research Strategy Identify and Select Units of Analysis Measure Variables Gather Data and Analyze the Relationships Among Variables Designing Research to Answer Qualitative Questions Select Research Strategy Select Field Setting, Social Group, and/or Archival Records Gain Access and Establish Relationships Decide Whom to Observe or Interview or What to Read Gather and Analyze Data BOXESDOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 4.1: How to Search the Literature READING SOCIAL RESEARCH 4.2: The Ecological Fallacy CHECKING YOUR UNDERSTANDING 4.3: Quantitative Research Questions, Units of Analysis, and Variables READING SOCIAL RESEARCH 4.4: How to Interpret Correlations and Tests of Statistical Significance CHAPTER 5. Measurement: Linking Theory to Research Overview: The Measurement Process Conceptualization and Operationalization Conceptualization Operationalization Variations in Operational Definitions: Data Sources Manipulated Versus Measured Operations Sources of Measured Operational Definitions Variations in Operational Definitions: Levels of Measurement Nominal Measurement Ordinal Measurement Interval Measurement Ratio Measurement Select and Apply Operational Definitions to Produce Data Assess the Quality of Operational Definitions Forms of Reliability Assessment Forms of Validity Assessment The Feedback Loop: From Data Back to Concepts and Measurement BOXESDOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 5.1: Improving Measurement with Composite Measures CHECKING YOUR UNDERSTANDING 5.2: Inferring Level of Measurement from Operational Definitions READING SOCIAL RESEARCH 5.3: Indexes, Scales, and Scaling Techniques READING SOCIAL RESEARCH 5.4: Measurement Error and the Social Desirability Effect CHAPTER 6. Sampling: Case Selection as a Basis for Inference Overview: The Sampling Process Principles of Probability Sampling Probability and Random Selection Probability Distribution and Sampling Error Sampling Distributions Statistical Inference Steps in Probability Sampling Define Target Population Construct Sampling Frame Devise Sampling Design Determine Sample Size Draw Sample Nonprobability Sampling Overview of Nonprobability Sampling Steps in Nonprobability Sampling Making Inferences from Nonprobability Samples BOXESDOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 6.1: How to Select Things Randomly CHECKING YOUR UNDERSTANDING 6.2: The Principles of Probability Sampling as Applied to the 2020 Pre-election Polls READING SOCIAL RESEARCH 6.3: Assessing Nonresponse Bias and Overall Sample Quality READING SOCIAL RESEARCH 6.4: Methodological Issues Related to Sampling via Crowdsourcing and Online Panels CHAPTER 7. Experiments: What Causes What? Introductory Example: Misconduct in Criminal Prosecution The Logic of Experimentation Variations on the Experimental Method Variations in Experimental Design Variations in Experimental Context The Process of Conducting Experiments Pretesting Participant Recruitment and Informed Consent Introduction to the Experiment Experimental Manipulation and Random Assignment Manipulation Checks Measurement of the Dependent Variable Debriefing Strengths and Weaknesses of Experiments Internal Validity External Validity Reactive Measurement Effects Content Restrictions BOXESCHECKING YOUR UNDERSTANDING 7.1: The Difference Between Random Sampling and Random Assignment DOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 7.2: Informed Consent Form for an Experiment READING SOCIAL RESEARCH 7.3: Thinking Critically About Research Designs and Threats to Internal Validity CHAPTER 8. Surveys: Questioning and Sampling Introductory Example: The Constructing the Family Survey General Features of Survey Research Large-Scale Probability Sampling Structured Interviews or Questionnaires Quantitative Data Analysis Variations in Survey Designs and Modes Survey Research Designs Data-Collection Modes The Process of Planning and Conducting a Survey Choose Mode of Data Collection Construct and Pretest Questionnaire Choose Sampling Frame/Design and Select Sample Recruit Sample and Collect Data Code and Edit Data Strengths and Weaknesses of Surveys Generalization to Populations Versatility Efficiency Establishing Causal Relationships Measurement Issues BOXESREADING SOCIAL RESEARCH 8.1: Open-Ended Versus Closed-Ended Questions in Survey Research DOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 8.2: Writing Survey Questions DOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 8.3: Informed Consent Statement in the Constructing the Family Survey CHAPTER 9. Field Research and In-Depth Interviews: Systematic People-Watching and Listening Introductory Field Research Example: Mexican New York Introductory In-Depth Interview Example: Mexican Americans Across Generations General Features of Qualitative Research Observation Interviews Supplementary Archival and Other Data Nonprobability Sampling Qualitative Data Analysis Reflexivity Variations in Qualitative Research Methods Degrees of Participation and Observation Overt Versus Covert Observation Interview Structure Individual Versus Group Interviews Technological Developments Crosscutting Observations and Interviews The Process of Conducting Field Research Select Setting/Group Gain Access Establish Roles and Relationships Decide What to Observe/Whom to Interview Gather and Analyze Data Leave the Field Write the Report The Process of Conducting In-Depth Interviews Select and Recruit Interviewees Develop Interview Guide Gather Data Analyze Data Strengths and Limitations of Qualitative Research Naturalistic Approach Subjective and Contextual Understanding Flexible Research Design Generalizability Reliability and Validity Efficiency BOXESCHECKING YOUR UNDERSTANDING 9.1: The "Nacirema" and Reflexivity READING SOCIAL RESEARCH 9.2: Getting an Insider's View of Students by Passing as One DOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 9.3: Preparing for an In-Depth Interview CHAPTER 10. Existing Data Analysis: Using Data from Secondhand Sources Sources and Examples of Existing Data Public Documents and Official Records Private Documents Mass Media Physical, Nonverbal Evidence Social Science Data Archives Analysis of Existing Statistical Data Existing Statistics Example: The Impact of MTV's 16 and Pregnant on Teen Childbearing The Process of Analyzing Existing Statistics Content Analysis Content Analysis Example: Journalistic Accounts of the Iraq War The Process of Content Analysis Comparative Historical Analysis An Example of Comparative Historical Analysis: The Emergence of Mass Imprisonment The Process of Comparative Historical Analysis Strengths and Limitations of Existing Data Analysis Studying Social Structure, History, and Social Change Nonreactive Measurement Cost Efficiency Data Limitations BOXESREADING SOCIAL RESEARCH 10.1: The Big Data Revolution CHECKING YOUR UNDERSTANDING 10.2: Identifying Units of Analysis DOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 10.3: Analyzing the Content of Cell Phone Use CHAPTER 11. Multiple Methods: Two or More Approaches Are Better Than One A Comparison of Four Basic Approaches to Social Research Examples of Mixed Methods Research Effect of Abuse on Marriage and Cohabitation What Employers Say Versus What They Do Explaining Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market Unpredictability and Unequal Control of Work Schedules and Time Purposes of Mixed Methods Research Triangulation Complementarity Development Expansion Mixed-Methods Research Designs Sequential Designs Concurrent Designs Component Designs Integrated Designs BOXDOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 11.1: Limitations and Guidelines for Doing Mixed Methods Research CHAPTER 12. Quantitative Data Analysis: Using Statistics for Description and Inference Introductory Example of Survey Data Analysis: Drinking and Grades Introductory Overview: The Process of Quantitative Analysis Prepare Data for Computerized Analysis: Data Processing Coding Editing Entering the Data Cleaning Inspect and Modify Data Nominal- and Ordinal-Scale Variables Interval- and Ratio-Scale Variables Carry Out Preliminary Hypothesis Testing Nominal- and Ordinal-Scale Variables Interval- and Ratio-Scale Variables Conduct Multivariate Testing Elaboration of Contingency Tables Multiple Regression BOXESDOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 12.1: Codebook Documentation CHECKING YOUR UNDERSTANDING 12.2: The Meaning of Statistical Significance and Strength of Association READING SOCIAL RESEARCH 12.3: The Impact of Statistical Assumptions in Quantitative Data Analysis CHAPTER 13. Qualitative Data Analysis: Searching for Meaning Introductory Example: Homelessness in Austin, Texas Overview: A Process of Analyzing Qualitative Data Prepare Data Transform the Data to Readable Text Check for and Resolve Errors Manage the Data Identify Concepts, Patterns, and Relationships Coding Memo-Writing Data Displays Draw and Evaluate Conclusions Variations in Qualitative Data Analysis Grounded Theory Methods Narrative Analysis Conversation Analysis BOXESDOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 13.1: Coding Textual Data READING SOCIAL RESEARCH 13.2: From Displays Back to Data CHAPTER 14. Reading and Writing in Social Research: It's All About Communication Read, Take Notes, and Write Research Proposal Locate Relevant Research Literature Read and Evaluate Prior Research Formulate Research Question Design Research and Prepare Proposal Write Research Report Outline and Prepare to Write Write First Draft Revision and Other Writing Considerations BOXESREADING SOCIAL RESEARCH 14.1: Questions to Ask in Evaluating a Research Report DOING SOCIAL RESEARCH 14.2: ASA Guidelines for In-Text Citations and References Glossary References Credits Index