Energy and The Environment

James A. Fay is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Dan S. Golomb is Professor Emeritus of Environmental Sciences at the University of Massachusetts at Lowell.

"In its particular niche this is the best book of which I am aware. I would like to compliment the authors for their concise and sure-handed discussion of a host of difficult topics."--Russ Houldin, University of Toronto"The strength of this book may lie in the fact that it presents concise and accurate information with very well-organized chapters covering almost all aspects of energy and the environment. The chapters on topics such as fossil-fueled power plants and nuclear-fueled power plants as well as transportation, are well-written."--Chunbao (Charles) Xu, Lakehead University

• Contents1 Energy and the Environment 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 An Overview of this Text 1.2 Energy 1.2.1 Electric Power 1.2.2 Transportation Energy 1.2.3 Energy as a Commodity1.3 The Environment 1.3.1 Managing Industrial Pollution Bibliography 2 Global Energy Use and Supply 2.1 Introduction2.2 Global Energy Consumption 2.3 Global Carbon Emissions 2.4 Global Energy Sources2.5 Global Electricity Consumption 2.6 End-Use Energy Consumption in the United States 2.6.1 Industrial Sector 2.6.2 Residential Sector 2.6.3 Commercial Sector 2.6.4 Transportation Sector2.7 Global Energy Supply2.7.1 Coal Reserves2.7.2 Petroleum Reserves 2.7.3 Unconventional Petroleum Resources2.7.4 Natural Gas Reserves 2.7.5 Unconventional Gas Resources 2.7.6 Summary of Fossil Reserves 2.8 ConclusionProblemsBibliography3 Thermodynamic Principles of Energy Conversion 3.1 Introduction 3.2 The Forms of Energy 3.2.1 The Mechanical Energy of Macroscopic Bodies3.2.2 The Energy of Atoms and Molecules3.2.3 Chemical and Nuclear Energy 3.2.4 Electric and Magnetic Energy3.2.5 Total Energy3.3 Work and Heat Interactions 3.3.1 Work Interaction3.3.2 Heat Interaction 3.4 The First Law of Thermodynamics3.5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics3.6 Thermodynamic Properties3.7 Steady Flow3.8 Heat Transfer and Heat Exchange 3.9 Ideal Heat Engine Cycles 3.9.1 The Carnot Cycle 3.9.2 The Rankine Cycle 3.9.3 The Otto Cycle3.9.4 The Brayton Cycle 3.9.5 Combined Brayton and Rankine Cycles 3.10 The Vapor Compression Cycle: Refrigeration and Heat Pumps 3.11 Energy Processing: First and Second Law Constraints3.11.1 Fuel Heating Value 3.11.2 Free Energy Change3.11.3 Separating Gases3.12 Fuel (Thermal) Efficiency3.13 ConclusionProblemsBibliography4 Thermodynamics of Fossil, Biomass, and Synthetic Fuels 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Fossil Fuels4.3 Combustion of Fossil Fuel4.3.1 Fuel Heating Value 4.4 Biomass Fuels 4.5 Synthetic Fuels 4.5.1 Examples of Fossil Fuel Synthesis 4.5.1.1 Coal to Gas 4.5.2 Examples of Biochemical Synthesis 4.6 Biochemical Production of Ethanol from Biomass 4.7 Electrochemical Reactions 4.7.1 Fuel Cells 4.7.2 Practical Fuel Cell Systems4.8 The Hydrogen Economy 4.8.1 Hydrogen Fuel for Vehicle Propulsion 4.8.2 Synthetic Hydrogen from Fossil Fuels with Carbon Capture and Storage4.8.3 Hydrogen as Energy Storage for Intermittent Electric Power Plants4.8.4 Hydrogen as a Substitute for Pipeline Natural Gas4.9 Conclusion ProblemsBibliography5 Electrical Energy Generation, Transmission, and Storage5.1 Introduction 5.2 Electromechanical Power Transformation5.3 Electric Power Transmission 5.3.1 AC/DC Conversion 5.4 Energy Storage5.4.1 Electrostatic Energy Storage 5.4.2 Magnetic Energy Storage 5.4.3 Electrochemical Energy Storage 5.4.3.1 Lead-Acid Storage Battery5.4.3.2 Lithium-Ion Storage Battery5.4.3.3 Other Storage Batteries5.4.4 Mechanical Energy Storage 5.4.4.1 Pumped Hydropower 5.4.4.2 Flywheel Energy Storage 5.4.5 Properties of Energy Storage Systems 5.5 ConclusionProblemsBibliography 6 Fossil-Fueled Power Plants 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Fossil-Fueled Power Plant Components 6.2.1 Fuel Storage and Preparation 6.2.2 Burner 6.2.3 Boiler6.2.4 Steam Turbine6.2.4.1 Impulse Turbine 6.2.4.2 Reaction Turbine 6.2.5 Gas Turbine 6.2.6 Condenser 6.2.7 Cooling Tower 6.2.7.1 Wet Cooling Tower6.2.7.2 Dry Cooling Tower6.2.8 Generator6.2.9 Combustion Stoichiometry6.2.10 Emission Control6.2.10.1 Control of Products of Incomplete Combustion and Carbon Monoxide 6.2.10.2 Control of Particles 6.2.10.3 Sulfur Control6.2.10.4 Nitrogen Oxide Control6.2.10.5 Mercury Control 6.2.10.6 Toxic Metals 6.2.11 Waste Disposal 6.3 Advanced Cycles6.3.1 Combined Cycle6.3.2 Coal Gasification Combined Cycle 6.3.3 Cogeneration 6.3.4 Fuel Cell 6.4 ConclusionProblemsBibliography7 Nuclear-Fueled Power Plants 7.1 Introduction7.2 Nuclear Energy 7.2.1 Nuclear Energy from Fission7.3 Radioactivity7.3.1 Decay Rates and Half-Lives 7.3.2 Units and Dosage7.3.2.1 Health Effects of Radiation7.3.2.2 Radiation Protection Standards 7.4 Nuclear Reactors7.4.1 Boiling Water Reactor 7.4.2 Pressurized Water Reactor 7.4.3 Gas Cooled Reactor 7.4.4 Breeder Reactor 7.5 Nuclear Fuel Cycle7.5.1 Mining and Refining7.5.2 Gasification and Enrichment 7.5.3 Spent Fuel Reprocessing 7.5.4 Temporary Waste Storage 7.5.5 Permanent Waste Storage7.6 Fusion 7.6.1 Magnetic Confinement 7.6.2 Laser Fusion 7.7 Energy Evolvement in Nuclear Fission and Fusion Reactions7.8 ConclusionProblems Bibliography 8 Renewable Energy 8.1 Introduction8.2 Hydropower8.2.1 Environmental Effects 8.3 Biomass Energy 8.3.1 Photosynthesis 8.3.2 Biofuels8.3.2.1 Bioethanol8.3.2.2 Biodiesel8.3.3 Wood as Biofuel 8.3.4 Environmental Effects 8.4 Geothermal Energy8.4.1 Environmental Effects8.5 Solar Energy8.5.1 Flat Plate Collector 8.5.2 Focusing Collectors8.5.2.1 Solar Thermal Farms 8.5.3 Photovoltaic Cells 8.5.3.1 Photovoltaic Farms 8.5.4 Environmental Effects 8.6 Wind Power 8.6.1 Aerodynamics of Wind Turbine Operation8.6.2 Mechanical and Electrical Components 8.6.3 Wind Resources 8.6.3.1 Capacity Factor 8.6.3.2 Effectiveness 8.6.3.3 Wind Variability and Predictability 8.6.4 Economical Turbine Designs 8.6.5 Wind Farms 8.6.6 Integrating Wind Farms into the Electric Power Network 8.6.6.1 Averaging An Array of Wind Farms 8.6.7 Environmental Effects 8.7 Tidal Power 8.7.1 Tidal Current Power 8.7.2 Environmental Effects 8.8 Ocean Wave Power 8.8.1 Ocean Wave Energy and Power 8.8.2 Ocean Wave Power Systems 8.8.3 Wave Power Farms 8.8.4 Environmental Impacts 8.9 Ocean Thermal Power 8.10 Capital Cost of Renewable Electric Power 8.11 Conclusion Problems Bibliography9 Automotive Transportation9.1 Introduction 9.2 Internal Combustion Engines for Highway Vehicles 9.2.1 Combustion in SI and CI engines 9.3 Engine Power and Performance 9.3.1 Engine Efficiency 9.4 Vehicle Power and Performance 9.4.1 Connecting the Engine to the Wheels 9.5 Vehicle Fuel Efficiency 9.5.1 U.S. Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Regulations and Test Cycles 9.5.2 Improving Vehicle Fuel Economy 9.5.2.1 Improving Vehicle Performance 9.5.2.2 Improving Engine Performance 9.6 Electric Drive Vehicles 9.6.1 Vehicles Powered by Storage Batteries 9.6.2 Hybrid Vehicles 9.6.3 Fuel Cell Vehicles 9.7 Vehicle Emissions 9.7.1 U.S. Vehicle Emission Standards 9.7.2 Reducing Vehicle Emissions 9.7.2.1 Reducing Engine-Out Emissions 9.7.2.2 Catalytic Converters for Exhaust Gas Treatment 9.7.2.3 Evaporative Emissions 9.7.2.4 Reducing CI Engine Emissions 9.7.2.5 Fuel Quality and its Regulation 9.8 Conclusion Problems Bibliography 10 Environmental Effects of Fossil Fuel Use 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Air Pollution 10.2.1 U.S. Emission Standards 10.2.2 U.S. Ambient Standards 10.2.3 Health and Environmental Effects of Fossil-Fuel-Related Air Pollutants 10.2.4 Air Pollution Meteorology 10.2.5 Air Quality Modeling 10.2.5.1 Modeling of Steady-State Point Source 10.2.5.2 Plume Rise 10.2.5.3 Steady State Line Source 10.2.5.4 Steady State Area Source 10.2.6 Photo-oxidants 10.2.6.1 Photo-oxidant Modeling 10.2.7 Acid Deposition 10.2.7.1 Acid Deposition Modeling 10.2.8 Regional Haze and Visibility Impairment 10.3 Water Pollution 10.3.1 Acid Mine Drainage and Coal Washing 10.3.3 Water Use and Thermal Pollution from Power Plants 10.3.4 Atmospheric Deposition of Toxic Pollutants onto Surface Waters 10.3.4.1 Toxic Metals 10.3.4.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 10.4 Land Pollution 10.5 Conclusion Problems Bibliography 11 GlobalWarming and Climate Change 11.1 Introduction 11.2 What is the Greenhouse Effect? 11.2.1 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation 11.2.2 Sun-Earth-Space Radiative Equilibrium 11.2.3 Modeling Global Warming 11.2.4 Global Warming Potential 11.2.5 Radiative Forcing 11.2.6 Results of Global Warming Modeling 11.2.7 Observed Trend of Global Warming 11.3 Associated Effects of Global Warming 11.3.1 Sea Level Rise. 11.3.2 Water Vapor and Precipitation Changes 11.3.3 Hurricanes and Typhoons 11.3.4 Climate Changes 11.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 11.4.1 Carbon Dioxide Emissions and the Carbon Cycle 11.4.2 Methane 11.4.3 Nitrous Oxide . 11.4.4 Chlorofluorocarbons 11.4.5 Ozone 11.5 Conclusion. Bibliography Problems 12 Mitigating GlobalWarming 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Controlling Halocarbon Emissions 12.3 Controlling Nitrous Oxide Emissions 12.4 Controlling Methane Emissions 12.4.1 Controlling Methane Generated by Coal Mining 12.4.2 Controlling Methane from Petroleum and Natural Gas Operations 12.4.3 Controlling Landfill Methane 12.5 Controlling Carbon Dioxide Emissions 12.5.1 Controlling CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fueled Electric Power Plants 12.5.1.1 Shift from Coal or Oil to Natural Gas Fuel 12.5.1.2 Natural Gas Fired Combined Cycle Plants 12.5.1.3 Capturing CO2 from the Flue Gas by Chemical Absorption 12.5.1.4 Oxyfuel Combustion with CO2 Capture 12.5.1.5 Integrated Coal Gasification Combined Cycle Plants with CO2 Capture 12.5.1.6 Capturing CO2 after Gasification by Physical Absorption 12.5.1.7 Capturing CO2 after Gasification by Membrane Separation 12.6 Thermal Efficiency and Cost of Controlling CO2 Emissions from Power Plants 12.7 CO2 Sequestration 12.7.1 Sequestration in Oil and Gas Reservoirs 12.7.2 Sequestration in Coal Seams 12.7.3 Sequestration in Deep Sedimentary Basins 12.7.4 Sequestration in the Deep Ocean 12.7.5 CO2 Removal from the Atmosphere 12.7.5.1 Afforestation 12.7.5.2 Ocean Fertilization 12.7.5.3 Mineral Sequestration 12.7.5.4 CO2 Utilization 12.8 Conclusion Problems Bibliography 13 Concluding Remarks 13.1 Energy Resources13.2 Regulating the Environmental Effects of Energy Use 13.3 Global Climate Change 13.3.1 Coping with Climate Change 13.4 Conclusion