Nishith D. Tripathi is a senior consultant at Award Solutions, Inc., a provider of technical consulting and specialized technical training for wireless communications. Dr. Tripathi has held several strategic positions in the wireless arena, for Nortel Networks and Huawei Technologies. In 2001, he co-authored a book on Radio Resource Management, and he is the author of nine patent submissions and numerous research papers. His job functions at Award Solutions put him at the forefront of emerging technologies, enabling him to author/develop new technical training material for various technologies.Jeffrey H. Reed is the Willis G. Worcester Professor in the Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Virginia Tech. From June 2000 to June 2002, Dr. Reed served as Director of the Mobile and Portable Radio Research Group (MPRG). He currently serves as Director of the newly formed umbrella wireless organization Wireless @ Virginia Tech, one of the largest and most comprehensive university wireless research groups in the U.S. Dr. Reed received the College of Engineering Award for Excellence in Research in 2001. Dr. Reed has served on several company advisory boards, including Samsung Electronics. He is cofounder of CRT Wireless, a company that is developing cognitive radio techniques for commercial and military wireless systems. He is a Fellow of the IEEE for contributions to software radio and communications signal processing and for leadership in engineering education.

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• Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxixPART I FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF CELLULAR COMMUNICATIONS1 Introduction to Cellular Communications 31.1 Motivation for Cellular Communications 41.2 The History of Wireless Communications and the Birth of a Cellular System 41.2.1 Once Upon a Time... A Really Brief History of Communications 51.2.2 Frequency Spectrum Allocation 51.2.3 Pre-Cellular Mobile Telephone Systems 81.2.4 The Advent of Cellular Systems 91.3 Concepts of a Cellular System 111.3.1 Network Architecture 111.3.2 Air Interface 121.3.3 Frequency Reuse 131.3.4 Sectorization and Its Impact on Quality and Capacity 201.4 Concepts of Duplexing and Multiple Access 221.4.1 Duplexing Methods 221.4.2 Multiple Access Methods 241.5 Types of Interference 261.5.1 Adjacent Channel Interference 261.5.2 Co-Channel Interference 271.6 Evolution of Cellular Standards 281.6.1 Evolutionary Path of Cellular Standards 281.6.2 Spectrum Allocation in the United States 321.6.3 Spectrum Allocation Outside the U.S. 341.7 Ecosystem of Cellular Systems 341.7.1 Service Providers 351.7.2 Mobile Device Manufacturers 361.7.3 Radio Network Infrastructure Vendors 371.7.4 Baseband Chipset Manufacturers 371.7.5 Original Equipment Manufacturers 391.7.6 Core Network Vendors 391.7.7 Design, Optimization, and Testing Tool Manufacturers 401.7.8 Appplication Providers 401.8 Phases of a Cellular System 421.8.1 Phase 1: Specifications of the Standard 421.8.2 Phase 2: Prototype Design and Lab Tests 431.8.3 Phase 3: Field Trials 431.8.4 Phase 4: Commercial Deployments 441.8.5 Phase 5: Optimization 441.9 Performance of Cellular Systems 451.9.1 Sector Capacity and Call Blocking Probability 451.9.2 Accessibility, Access Failure Rate, and Paging Failure Rate 471.9.3 Retainability and Call-Drop Rate 471.9.4 Error Rate and Quality of Service 471.9.5 Cell-Edge Reliability and Cell-Area Reliability 481.9.6 Peak User Data Rate 491.9.7 Average Cell or Sector Throughput and User-Perceived Throughput 491.9.8 Latency or Delay 501.9.9 Delay Jitter 501.10 End-User Services 501.11 Points to Remember 522 Elements of a Digital Communication System 552.1 Overview of a Digital Cellular Communication System 562.2 Transceiver Operations in a Digital Cellular System 572.3 Information Bits: Construction at the Transmitter and Retrieval at the Receiver 592.3.1 Linear Predictive Speech Coding: A Simplistic View 612.3.2 Enhanced Variable-Rate Codec 622.3.3 Adaptive Multirate Codec 662.4 Forward Error Correction Coding and Decoding 702.4.1 Convolutional Coding at the Transmitter 722.4.2 Example Convolutional Decoding at the Receiver 742.4.3 Turbo Coding at the Transmitter 832.4.4 Turbo Decoding at the Receiver 852.4.5 What Should I Choose: Convolutional or Turbo? 862.5 Interleaving and De-Interleaving 872.6 Digital Modulation and Demodulation 892.6.1 Modulation Schemes 902.6.2 Demodulation Approaches 962.6.3 Choosing a Modulation Scheme 992.7 RF Processor Functions at the Transmitter and the Receiver 1002.8 Points to Remember 1093 Radio Frequency Propagation 1113.1 Radio Frequency Waves 1113.2 Free-Space Propagation 1133.3 Cellular Propagation Mechanisms 1163.3.1 Reflection 1163.3.2 Diffraction 1173.3.3 Scattering 1193.3.4 Absorption and Penetration 1203.4 Prediction of Received Signal Strength 1213.4.1 Distance-Based Path Loss 1243.4.2 Large-Scale Fading 1283.4.3 Small-Scale Fading 1313.5 Points to Remember 1534 IP and Associated Technologies for a Cellular System 1554.1 Why Internet Protocol? (Or, Perhaps, Why Not Internet Protocol?) 1564.2 Protocol Stack for the Internet 1594.2.1 Overview of the Transport Layer (Layer 4) Protocols 1604.2.2 Overview of the Internetwork Layer (Layer 3) Protocols 1734.2.3 Overview of the Link Layer (Layer 2) Protocols 1844.3 Routing and Forwarding of IP Packets 1934.4 Transport of Information within the Network Infrastructure 2004.5 Voice-Over-IP-Related Protocols 2044.5.1 Session Initiation Protocol 2064.5.2 Session Description Protocol 2094.5.3 Real-Time Transport Protocol and Real-Time Transport Control Protocol 2114.6 A Potpourri of IP-Centric Protocols 2134.6.1 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol 2134.6.2 Mobile IP 2144.6.3 Domain Name System 2204.6.4 RADIUS and Diameter 2224.6.5 IP Quality-of-Service Implementation: Integrated Services and Differentiated Services 2244.6.6 IP Tunneling, GTP, and GRE 2284.6.7 IPsec 2314.6.8 Robust Header Compression 2314.7 Essence of IPv6 2324.8 Points to Remember 235PART II 2G, 2.5G, AND 3G CELLULAR TECHNOLOGIES5 Overview of GSM 2395.1 Introduction 2405.1.1 The Origin of GSM and GSM Milestones in Two Minutes 2405.1.2 Highlights of a GSM System 2415.2 GSM System Architecture 2425.2.1 Base Station System 2445.2.2 Core Network 2475.3 Air-Interface Protocol Stack between MS and BSS 2495.3.1 High-Level View of MS-BSS Communications 2495.3.2 Air-Interface Protocol Stack: A Brief Overview 2515.4 Radio Interface: Frame Structure and Channels 2595.4.1 Frequency and Time Structures 2595.4.2 Air-Interface Channels 2635.4.3 Bursts: An Inside Look 2675.5 Network Acquisition 2695.5.1 Beyond Radio Network Acquisition: MS-Core-Network Communications 2725.6 Voice Call Setup 2795.6.1 MS-Originated Call Setup 2795.6.2 MS-Terminated Call Setup and Paging Procedure 2815.7 Mobility Management in Idle Mode 2825.8 Mobility Management in Active or Connected Mode 2835.8.1 What are the Channel Conditions? 2845.8.2 Making a Handover Decision: Who is in Charge Around Here? 2875.8.3 Follow the Leader: Handover Completion 2935.9 Power Control 2945.9.1 A Detailed Look at Power Control 2955.9.2 Further Reduction in the Transmit Power Consumption: DTX 2975.10 Deployment Considerations 2985.11 Evolution of GSM 3025.12 Points to Remember 3026 GPRS and EDGE 3056.1 Introduction 3066.1.1 The Motivation for GPRS 3066.1.2 The Motivation for EDGE 3086.1.3 GPRS in Two Minutes 3086.1.4 EDGE in Two Minutes 3096.2 System Architecture 3106.2.1 Packet-Domain Core Network Architecture: An Overview 3106.2.2 A Detailed View of the Components of the Packet-Domain Core Network 3126.2.3 Interfaces of the Packet-Domain Core Network 3216.2.4 End-to-End View of the Data Transfer 3236.3 MS-BSS Air-Interface Communications 3246.3.1 Physical Layer of GPRS and EDGE 3256.3.2 RLC/MAC Layer and Its Functions 3346.4 Radio Interface: Frame Structure and Channels 3426.4.1 Review of Timing Structures 3426.4.2 New Logical Channels in GPRS and EDGE 3446.4.3 Association of Logical and Physical Channels 3466.5 Network Acquisition 3486.5.1 Cell Search and Synchronization: A Brief Review 3486.5.2 The MS's GPRS Attach Procedure: Making the First Contact with the Core Network 3496.5.3 Getting Ready for Packet Data Transfer: PDP Context Activation 3516.6 Packet Transfer in GPRS and EDGE 3536.6.1 MS-Originated Packet Transfer 3536.6.2 MS-Terminated Packet Transfer 3556.6.3 Management of Circuit-Switched and GPRS Paging 3566.7 Mobility Management 3586.7.1 Routing Area Update: STANDBY State Mobility Management 3586.7.2 Mobility Management in READY State 3596.8 Deployment Considerations and Network Evolution 3616.9 Points to Remember 3627 Fundamentals of CDMA, WCDMA, and IS-95 3637.1 A Brief Introduction to CDMA, WCDMA, and IS-95 3647.2 CDMA or WCDMA: An Efficient Resource-Sharing Technique 3667.3 Characteristics of CDMA 3697.3.1 Wideband Transmission 3697.3.2 Frequency Reuse and Impact of Sectorization 3707.3.3 Interference and its Control in CDMA 3717.3.4 Handoff 3757.3.5 Power Control 3817.3.6 Capacity of a CDMA System 3887.4 IS-95 System Architecture 3907.5 IS-95 MS-Radio-Network Communications: An Overview 3917.5.1 Duplexing: Simultaneous Downlink and Uplink Transmissions 3927.5.2 IS-95 Protocol Stack Overview 3927.5.3 Downlink and Uplink Radio Channels of IS-95 3947.5.4 Physical Layer (Layer 1) Processing 3997.5.5 Multiplex Sublayer (Between Layer 1 and Layer 2): An Overview 4037.5.6 Layer 2 Versus Layer 3 4047.6 IS-95 Call Setup 4057.7 IS-95 Mobility Management 4077.7.1 Power-On Network Acquisition—One-Way Traffic! 4077.7.2 MS to Network: "Here I Am"—Registration and Other Idle Mode Activities 4087.7.3 Handoff in Connected or Traffic Mode—Now We Are Getting Really Busy! 4117.8 IS-95 Power Control 4147.8.1 Uplink Power Control 4157.8.2 Downlink Power Control 4167.9 IS-95: Deployment, Evolution, and Enhancements 4187.10 Points to Remember 4208 CDMA20001X 4238.1 A Brief Overview of CDMA2000 4248.2 CDMA2000 lx Network Architecture 4268.2.1 Overview of the Network Architecture 4268.2.2 A Detailed View of the Packet-Switched Core Network 4298.3 MS-Radio-Access-Network Communications 4318.3.1 Overview of Air-Interface Protocol Stack 4318.3.2 Radio Channels and Radio Configurations of lx 4338.3.3 Overview of Physical Layer (Layer 1) Processing 4418.3.4 Overview of Link Layer (Layer 2) Processing 4458.3.5 A Brief Overview of Upper-Layer Processing 4548.4 lx Call Setup 4548.4.1 Voice Call Setup in lx: An Overview 4558.4.2 Voice Call Setup in lx: A Closer Look 4568.4.3 How About Data Call Setup in lx? 4598.4.4 What About MS-Terminated Call Setup? 4608.5 Over-the-Air Transmission of Traffic for Forward and Reverse Links 4628.5.1 Forward Link Packet Data Transmission 4628.5.2 Reverse Link Packet Data Transmission 4678.6 Mobility Management 4688.6.1 Registration and Authentication 4698.6.2 Using the Access Channel 4728.6.3 Handoff in Connected Mode: lx Enhancements 4778.7 lx Power Control 4818.7.1 Reverse Link Power Control for the Reverse Fundamental Channel 4818.7.2 Forward Link Power Control for the Forward Fundamental Channel 4828.8 lx Deployment and Evolution 4848.9 Points to Remember 4859 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System Release 99 4879.1 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System Release 99: Executive Summary 4889.2 UMTS Network Architecture 4899.2.1 Radio Network Subsystem 4919.2.2 Protocol Stacks: From User Equipment to the Edge of the Network 4939.3 Radio Interface Protocol Stack between UE and UTRAN 4959.3.1 Radio Interface Protocol Stack: A Brief Overview 4959.3.2 Physical Layer 4999.3.3 Medium Access Control Sublayer 5039.3.4 Radio Link Control Sublayer 5049.3.5 Packet Data Convergence Protocol Sublayer 5109.3.6 Broadcast-Multicast Control Sublayer 5119.3.7 Radio Resource Control Layer 5129.4 Radio Interface Between the UE and the UTRAN 5159.4.1 Overview of Frame Structure and Radio Channels 5159.4.2 Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor Codes 5199.4.3 Primary Synchronization Channel 5239.4.4 Secondary Synchronization Channel 5239.4.5 Primary Common Pilot Channel 5249.4.6 Primary Common Control Physical Channel 5259.4.7 Page Indicator Channel 5269.4.8 Secondary—Common Control Physical Channel 5279.4.9 Physical Random Access Channel 5289.4.10 Acquisition Indicator Channel 5339.4.11 Uplink Dedicated Physical Data Channel and Dedicated Physical Control Channel 5349.4.12 Downlink Dedicated Physical Channel and Dedicated Physical Control Channel 5359.4.13 Combining of the Downlink Channels in a Cell 5369.4.14 Transmission of Uplink Channels by User Equipment 5399.5 Cell Search and Synchronization 5399.5.1 Overview of Power-Up Synchronization and Cell Search 5399.5.2 Power-Up Synchronization and Cell Search: A Closer Look 5409.5.3 Beyond Synchronization: User Equipment and Core Network Communications 5429.6 Voice Call Setup 5449.6.1 Overview of Voice Call Setup and Teardown 5449.6.2 Detailed Voice Call Setup 5459.7 Data Call Setup 5539.7.1 Overview of the Data Session Setup 5539.7.2 Detailed Data Session Setup 5549.8 Mobility Management 5579.8.1 Idle Mode Mobility: An Overview 5589.8.2 Connected Mode Mobility: An Overview of Basic Concepts 5599.8.3 Stages of Intra-Frequency Handover: A Closer Look 5629.8.4 Intra-UMTS Inter-Frequency and Inter-RAT Handover 5689.8.5 Compressed Mode 5699.9 Power Control 5739.9.1 Uplink Closed-Loop Power Control 5749.9.2 Downlink Closed-Loop Power Control 5799.10 Quality-of-Service in the Universal Mobile Telecommunication System 5809.11 Evolution of the Universal Mobile Telecommunication System 5819.12 Points to Remember 58310 1xEvolution-Data-Optimized Revision 0 58510.1 lxEV-DO: Executive Summary 58610.2 Overview of Call Setup and Data Transmission 58710.3 Network Architecture 59010.4 lxEV-DO Protocol Stack: An Overview 59110.5 Introduction to Radio Channels and Timing Structure 59310.6 A Closer Look at Forward Link Radio Channels 59610.6.1 Pilot Channel 59710.6.2 Medium Access Control Channel 59710.6.3 Control Channel 60010.6.4 Forward Traffic Channel 60410.6.5 Combining the Forward Link Channels 61010.7 A Closer Look at Reverse Link Channels 61210.7.1 Access Channel 61210.7.2 Pilot Channel and Data Channel 61510.7.3 Data Rate Control Channel 61710.7.4 Acknowledgment Channel 61910.7.5 Combining of the Reverse Link Channels 62110.8 Call Setup: A Closer Look 62310.8.1 Session Setup 62410.8.2 Point-to-Point Protocol Setup 62810.8.3 Mobile Internet Protocol Setup 62810.9 Forward Link Data Transmission: A Detailed View 63010.10 Reverse Link Data Transmission: A Detailed View 63310.10.1 Stage 1: Configuration of the Access Terminal with Reverse Link Parameters 63310.10.2 Stage 2: Fast Indications of Reverse Link Interference 63510.10.3 Stage 3: Execution of the Reverse Link Data Determination Algorithm 63510.10.4 Stage 4: The Access Terminal's Data Transmission 63810.11 Mobility Management in 1 xEV-DO 64010.12 A Glimpse of 1 xEV-DO Optimization 64210.12.1 RF Optimization 64310.12.2 Parameter and Configuration Optimization 64410.13 1 xRTT and 1 xEV-DO Interworking 64510.14 lxEV-DO Link Budget 64610.15 Points to Remember 64911 High-Speed Downlink Packet Access 65111.1 Overview of Third Generation Partnership Project Release 5 65211.2 A Bird's-Eye View of High-Speed Downlink Packet Access Data Transmission 65311.3 High-Speed Downlink Packet Access Channels and Their Use: A Deep Dive 65511.3.1 High-Speed-Physical Downlink Shared Channel 65511.3.2 High-Speed-Shared Control Channel 65911.3.3 High-Speed-Dedicated Physical Control Channel 66711.4 Data Transmission Process 67111.4.1 Step 1: Reporting of Channel Conditions 67111.4.2 Step 2: Scheduling of Users and User Packets 67211.4.3 Step 3: Packet Transmission from the Node B and Packet Reception at UEs 67711.4.4 Step 4: UE Response to a Received Packet 68011.5 High-Speed Downlink Packet Access Call Setup 68111.6 Resource Management of the High-Speed Downlink Packet Access Channels 68311.7 Mobility Management in High-Speed Downlink Packet Access 68511.8 Network and UE Architecture 68911.8.1 Radio Interface Protocol Stack Changes from Release 99 to Release 5 68911.8.2 High-Speed Downlink Packet Access UE Categories 69111.8.3 Interaction Between the Node B and the RNC for High-Speed Downlink Packet Access 69111.8.4 Construction of a Packet at the Node B 69511.9 Points to Remember 69712 1x Evolution-Data-Optimized Revision A 69912.1 Introduction 70012.2 Overview of Rev. A Enhancements 70212.3 Characteristics of Physical Layer Subtypes 70512.3.1 Overview of Physical Layer Subtypes 70512.3.2 Reverse Link Frame Structure of Subtype 2 Physical Layer 70612.4 Rev. A Forward Link Channels 70712.4.1 Overview of FL Channels 70712.4.2 ARQ Channel: A New Forward Link Channel in Rev. A 71512.5 Overview of Rev. A Reverse Link Channels 71812.5.1 Access Channel and RRI Channel Enhancements in Rev. A 72112.5.2 Auxiliary Pilot Channel and DSC Channel: New Rev. A Channels 72312.6 Rev. A Enhancement for Call Setup and Session Setup 72412.6.1 Session Configuration and Multiple Personalities 72512.6.2 Generic Attribute Update Protocol 72812.6.3 Multimode Capability Discovery Protocol 72812.7 Rev. A Forward Link Data Transmission: A Detailed View 72812.7.1 Overview of Enhancements in Forward Link Transmission 72812.7.2 DRC Enhancements 73112.7.3 Multi-User Packets 73412.7.4 MACIndex Enhancements 73712.7.5 The AT's Detection of the FL Packet 73912.7.6 Forward Link H-ARQ 73912.8 Overview of Rev. A Reverse Link Data Rate Control 74012.9 Reverse Link Interference Control via T2P 74212.9.1 Motivation for T2P-Based Rate Control 74312.9.2 What Is T2P, Anyway? 74412.10 Subtype 2 RTC MAC Protocol Data Rate Control 74512.10.1 Terminology for Subtype 2 and 3 RTC MAC Protocol 74512.10.2 Overview of RL Data Transmission 75012.10.3 A Comprehensive View of RL Data Transmission 75112.11 Subtype 3 RTC MAC Protocol Data Rate Control 75612.11.1 Overview of RL Data Transmission 75612.11.2 Detailed View of RL Data Transmission 75812.12 Rev. A QoS Control 76112.12.1 Air-Interface QoS 76212.12.2 Network QoS Control on R-P Interface 76312.13 Handoff within 1 xEV-DO 76412.14 Idle State Enhancements and Signaling Enhancements 76612.15 1 xEV-DO Rev. A Interworking: Rev. 0, Rev. A, and CDMA2000 lx 76712.16 Points to Remember 76713 High-Speed Uplink Packet Access 76913.1 Introduction to HSUPA: An Executive Summary 77013.2 Basics of Data Transmission: A Brief Overview 77113.2.1 Simplified HSUPA Call Setup 77213.2.2 Some Terminology 77313.2.3 Major Stages of Uplink Data Transmission: An Overview 77413.3 HSUPA Channels 77713.3.1 The E-DCH and E-DPDCHs (Uplink) 77713.3.2 The E-DPCCH (Uplink) 78413.3.3 The E-AGCH (Downlink) 78513.3.4 The E-RGCH (Downlink) 78713.3.5 The E-HICH (Downlink) 78813.3.6 A Really Close Look at Timing Relationships Among HSUPA Channels 78913.4 Prior to Data Transmission 79013.5 Steps of Uplink Data Transmission 79313.5.1 Scheduling Requests from the UE to the Node Bs 79413.5.2 The Node B's Determination of Grants 79413.5.3 Determination of the Serving Grant 79813.5.4 E-DCH Transmission 80013.5.5 Node B's Packet Decoding and HARQ Transmission 81113.6 Physical Layer Retransmissions and HARQ 81113.7 Support for User Mobility 81413.8 System Architecture 81513.8.1 Enhancements to the Existing Architecture 81513.8.2 Interaction Between the Node B and the RNC for the Management of HSUPA Channels and Resources 81713.8.3 HSUPA UE Categories 81813.9 Points to Remember 818PART III IP MULTIMEDIA SUBSYSTEM AND 4G CELLULAR TECHNOLOGIES14 IP Multimedia Subsystem 82314.1 Introduction to IMS: What and Why? 82314.2 IMS, IP Convergence, and Fixed Mobile Convergence 82714.3 History of IMS 82814.4 IMS Architecture 83114.4.1 High-Level View of the IMS Architecture 83114.4.2 IMS Architecture: A Closer Look 83514.5 IMS Communication Protocols for Signaling and Media Transport 84114.5.1 Using SIP in IMS 84214.5.2 H.248 in IMS 84514.6 Identifying the IMS Subscriber and the IMS Elements 84814.7 IMS Session Setup Scenarios 85214.7.1 IMS Device to PSTN Call Setup: A Closer Look 85214.7.2 PSTN-Originated and IMS Device-Terminated VoIP Call Setup: An Overview 85614.7.3 Multimedia Session Setup for IMS Endpoints: A Brief Overview 85814.8 IMS Services and Applications 86014.9 Implementation of Quality-of-Service using IMS 86214.10 Points to Remember 86415 Fourth-Generation Technologies 86715.1 Why 4G Technologies? 86715.2 Essential Elements of 4G Technologies 86915.3 Fundamentals of OFDM and OFDM A 87115.3.1 OFDM and OFDM A: Why and Why Now? 87115.3.2 OFDM: A High-Level View 87215.3.3 Construction of Orthogonal Subcarriers 87415.3.4 OFDM Challenges and Solutions 87815.3.5 Simplified OFDMA Transceiver 88415.4 Multiple Antenna Techniques 88815.4.1 Diversity Techniques: Some Simple and Some Sophisticated! 88815.4.2 Spatial Multiplexing 89215.4.3 Beamforming 89315.4.4 Space-Division Multiple Access 89515.5 WiMAX Overview 89715.5.1 Salient Features of WiMAX 89715.5.2 WiMAX Network Architecture 90015.5.3 WiMAX Air Interface 90215.5.4 WiMAX Operations 90315.6 Overview of LTE 90815.6.1 Salient Features of LTE 90915.6.2 LTE Network Architecture 91115.6.3 LTE Air Interface 91415.6.4 LTE Operations 91515.6.5 A Brief Overview of LTE-Advanced 91915.7 4G Technology Challenges 92115.8 Points to Remember 922Appendix A: A Brief Overview of Signaling System 7 923Appendix B: Erlang-B Table 929Appendix C: A High-Level Comparison of Third-Generation Technologies 931Appendix D: HSPA+ Overview 943D. 1 Summary of HSPA+ Features 943D.2 Data Transmission in HSPA+: A Closer Look 947D.3 HSPA+: Beyond Release 7 952References 955Glossary 977Index 991