Design for Reliability

DEV RAHEJA is President of Raheja Consulting, Inc. For over thirty years, he has served clients in numerous industries, including aerospace, medical devices, auto, and consumer products. Raheja is also the coauthor of Assurance Technologies Principles and Practices, Second Edition (Wiley).LOUIS J. GULLO is Senior Principal Systems Engineer at Raytheon Missile Systems in Tucson, Arizona. A retired U.S. Army Lieutenant Colonel, Gullo has more than thirty years' experience in military, space, and commercial programs. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE and Chair of the IEEE Reliability Society Standards Committee.

• Contributors xiii Foreword xvPreface xviiIntroduction: What You Will Learn xix1 Design for Reliability Paradigms 1Dev RahejaWhy Design for Reliability? 1Reflections on the Current State of the Art 2The Paradigms for Design for Reliability 4Summary 13References 132 Reliability Design Tools 15Joseph A. ChildsIntroduction 15Reliability Tools 19Test Data Analysis 31Summary 34References 353 Developing Reliable Software 37Samuel KeeneIntroduction and Background 37Software Reliability: Definitions and Basic Concepts 40Software Reliability Design Considerations 44Operational Reliability Requires Effective Change Management 48Execution-Time Software Reliability Models 48Software Reliability Prediction Tools Prior to Testing 49References 514 Reliability Models 53Louis J. GulloIntroduction 53Reliability Block Diagram: System Modeling 56Example of System Reliability Models Using RBDs 57Reliability Growth Model 60Similarity Analysis and Categories of a Physical Model 60Monte Carlo Models 62Markov Models 62References 645 Design Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis 67Louis J. GulloIntroduction to FMEA and FMECA 67Design FMECA 68Principles of FMECA-MA 71Design FMECA Approaches 72Example of a Design FMECA Process 74Risk Priority Number 82Final Thoughts 86References 866 Process Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis 87Joseph A. ChildsIntroduction 87Principles of P-FMECA 87Use of P-FMECA 88What Is Required Before Starting 90Performing P-FMECA Step by Step 91Improvement Actions 98Reporting Results 100Suggestions for Additional Reading 1017 FMECA Applied to Software Development 103Robert W. StoddardIntroduction 103Scoping an FMECA for Software Development 104FMECA Steps for Software Development 106Important Notes on Roles and Responsibilities with Software FMECA 116Lessons Learned from Conducting Software FMECA 117Conclusions 119References 1208 Six Sigma Approach to Requirements Development 121Samuel KeeneEarly Experiences with Design of Experiments 121Six Sigma Foundations 124The Six Sigma Three-Pronged Initiative 126The RASCI Tool 128Design for Six Sigma 129Requirements Development: The Principal Challenge to System Reliability 130The GQM Tool 131The Mind Mapping Tool 132References 1359 Human Factors in Reliable Design 137Jack DixonHuman Factors Engineering 137A Design Engineer’s Interest in Human Factors 138Human-Centered Design 138Human Factors Analysis Process 144Human Factors and Risk 150Human Error 150Design for Error Tolerance 153Checklists 154Testing to Validate Human Factors in Design 154References 15410 Stress Analysis During Design to Eliminate Failures 157Louis J. Gullo Principles of Stress Analysis 157Mechanical Stress Analysis or Durability Analysis 158Finite Element Analysis 158Probabilistic vs. Deterministic Methods and Failures 159How Stress Analysis Aids Design for Reliability 159Derating and Stress Analysis 160Stress vs. Strength Curves 161Software Stress Analysis and Testing 166Structural Reinforcement to Improve Structural Integrity 167References 16711 Highly Accelerated Life Testing 169Louis J. GulloIntroduction 169Time Compression 173Test Coverage 174Environmental Stresses of HALT 175Sensitivity to Stresses 176Design Margin 178Sample Size 180Conclusions 180Reference 18112 Design for Extreme Environments 183Steven S. AustinOverview 183Designing for Extreme Environments 183Designing for Cold 184Designing for Heat 186References 19113 Design for Trustworthiness 193Lawrence Bernstein and C. M. YuhasIntroduction 193Modules and Components 196Politics of Reuse 200Design Principles 201Design Constraints That Make Systems Trustworthy 204Conclusions 210References and Notes 21114 Prognostics and Health Management Capabilities to Improve Reliability 213Louis J. GulloIntroduction 213PHM Is Department of Defense Policy 216Condition-Based Maintenance vs. Time-Based Maintenance 216Monitoring and Reasoning of Failure Precursors 217Monitoring Environmental and Usage Loads for Damage Modeling 218Fault Detection, Fault Isolation, and Prognostics 218Sensors for Automatic Stress Monitoring 220References 22115 Reliability Management 223Joseph A. ChildsIntroduction 223Planning, Execution, and Documentation 229Closing the Feedback Loop: Reliability Assessment, Problem Solving, and Growth 232References 23316 Risk Management, Exception Handling, and Change Management 235Jack DixonIntroduction to Risk 235Importance of Risk Management 236Why Many Risks Are Overlooked 237Program Risk 239Design Risk 241Risk Assessment 242Risk Identification 243Risk Estimation 244Risk Evaluation 245Risk Mitigation 247Risk Communication 248Risk and Competitiveness 249Risk Management in the Change Process 249Configuration Management 249References 25117 Integrating Design for Reliability with Design for Safety 253Brian MoriartyIntroduction 253Start of Safety Design 254Reliability in System Safety Design 255Safety Analysis Techniques 255Establishing Safety Assessment Using the Risk Assessment Code Matrix 260Design and Development Process for Detailed Safety Design 261Verification of Design for Safety Includes Reliability 261Examples of Design for Safety with Reliability Data 262Final Thoughts 266References 26618 Organizational Reliability Capability Assessment 267Louis J. GulloIntroduction 267The Benefits of IEEE 1624-2008 269Organizational Reliability Capability 270Reliability Capability Assessment 271Design Capability and Performability 271IEEE 1624 Scoring Guidelines 276SEI CMMI Scoring Guidelines 277Organizational Reliability Capability Assessment Process 278Advantages of High Reliability 282Conclusions 283References 284Index 285