Mr. Norman Pascoe, MIT Consultant (retired), UKThe author has worked for forty three years in the fields of Environmental Testing , Quality and Reliability and Environmental Stress Screening. Since 1996 he has worked as a Reliability Technology consultant to some leading telecommunications and aerospace industries. Before becoming a consultant Norman served for five years as European Product Assurance adviser to Nortel Networks Limited.Mr Pascoe has presented papers at seminars and conferences in North America, the UK and other European countries. He became a member of the Society of Environmental Engineers in December 1987 and was elected a Fellow of the Society of Environmental Engineers in April 1998.

• Foreword by Michael Pecht ixSeries Editor’s Preface xiPreface xiiiAbout the Author xviiAcknowledgements xix1 The Origins and Evolution of Quality and Reliability 11.1 Sixty Years of Evolving Electronic Equipment Technology 11.2 Manufacturing Processes – From Manual Skills to Automation 31.3 Soldering Systems 41.4 Component Placement Machines 51.5 Automatic Test Equipment 51.6 Lean Manufacturing 51.7 Outsourcing 91.8 Electronic System Reliability – Folklore versus Reality 91.9 The ‘Bathtub’ Curve 111.10 The Truth about Arrhenius 131.11 The Demise of MIL-HDBK- 217 151.12 The Benefits of Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Products 181.13 The MoD SMART Procurement Initiative 201.14 Why do Items Fail? 211.15 The Importance of Understanding Physics of Failure (PoF) 23Summary and Questions 23References 252 Product Lifecycle Management 272.1 Overview 272.2 Project Management 292.3 Project Initiation 312.4 Project Planning 332.5 Project Execution 382.6 Project Closure 412.7 A Process Capability Maturity Model 422.8 When and How to Define The Distribution Strategy 472.9 Transfer of Design to Manufacturing – The High-Risk Phase 482.10 Outsourcing – Understanding and Minimising the Risks 492.11 How Product Reliability is Increasingly Threatened in the Twenty-First Century 50Summary and Questions 51References 523 The Physics of Failure 533.1 Overview 533.2 Background 543.3 Potential Failure Mechanisms in Materials and Components 563.4 Techniques for Failure Analysis of Components and Assemblies 713.5 Transition from Tin-Lead to Lead-Free Soldering 753.6 High-Temperature Electronics and Extreme-Temperature Electronics 773.7 Some Illustrations of Failure Mechanisms 79Summary and Questions 86References 874 Heat Transfer – Theory and Practice 894.1 Overview 894.2 Conduction 904.3 Convection 964.4 Radiation 1004.5 Thermal Management 1064.6 Principles of Temperature Measurement 1064.7 Temperature Cycling and Thermal Shock 110Summary and Questions 111References 1125 Shock and Vibration – Theory and Practice 1135.1 Overview 1135.2 Sources of Shock Pulses in the Real Environment 1145.3 Response of Electronic Equipment to Shock Pulses 1155.4 Shock Testing 1165.5 Product Shock Fragility 1205.6 Shock and Vibration Isolation Techniques 1265.7 Sources of Vibration in the Real Environment 1335.8 Response of Electronic Equipment to Vibration 1345.9 Vibration Testing 1345.10 Vibration-Test Fixtures 139Summary and Questions 145References 1476 Achieving Environmental-Test Realism 1496.1 Overview 1496.2 Environmental-Testing Objectives 1506.3 Environmental-Test Specifications and Standards 1526.4 Quality Standards 1576.5 The Role of the Test Technician 1586.6 Mechanical Testing 1596.7 Climatic Testing 1646.8 Chemical and Biological Testing 1686.9 Combined Environment Testing 1696.10 Electromagnetic Compatibility 1756.11 Avoiding Misinterpretation of Test Standards and Specifications 179Summary and Questions 181References 1837 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Design 1857.1 Overview 1857.2 Robust Design and Quality Loss Function 1867.3 Six Sigma Quality 1927.4 Concept, Parameter and Tolerance Design 1957.5 Understanding Product Whole Lifecycle Environment 1997.6 Defining User Requirement for Failure-Free Operation 2037.7 Component Anatomy, Materials and Mechanical Architecture 2057.8 Design for Testability 2067.9 Design for Manufacturability 2117.10 Define Product Distribution Strategy 213Summary and Questions 215References 2168 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Development 2178.1 Overview 2178.2 Understanding and Achieving Test Realism 2188.3 Qualification Testing 2198.4 Stress Margin Analysis and Functional Performance Stability 2198.5 Premature Failure Stimulation 2298.6 Accelerated Ageing vs. Accelerated Life Testing 2298.7 Design and Proving of Distribution Packaging 232Summary and Questions 247References 2489 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Manufacturing 2519.1 Overview 2519.2 Manufacturing Planning 2529.3 Manufacturing Process Capability 2539.4 Manufacturing Process Management and Control 2579.5 Non-invasive Inspection Techniques 2679.6 Manufacturing Handling Procedures 2699.7 Lead-Free Soldering – A True Perspective 2799.8 Conformal Coating 2819.9 Production Reliability Acceptance Testing 287Summary and Questions 288References 28910 Environmental-Stress Screening 29110.1 Overview 29110.2 The Origins of ESS 29110.3 Thermal-Stress Screening 29410.4 Developing a Thermal-Stress Screen 31310.5 Vibration-Stress Screening 31510.6 Developing a Vibration-Stress Screen 31710.7 Combined Environment-Stress Screening 32610.8 Other Stress Screening Methodologies 32710.9 Estimating Product Life Consumed by Stress Screening 32810.10 An Environmental-Stress Screening Case Study 329Summary and Questions 334References 33511 Some Worked Examples 33711.1 Overview 33711.2 Thermal Expansion Stresses Generated within a PTH Due to Temperature Cycling 34011.3 Shear Tear-Out Stresses in Through-Hole Solder Joints 34211.4 Axial Forces on a Through-Hole Component Lead Wire 34611.5 SMC QFP – Solder-Joint Shear Stresses 34811.6 Frequency and Peak Half-Amplitude Displacement Calculations 35711.7 Random Vibration – Converting G2/Hz to GRMS 35811.8 Accelerated Ageing – Temperature Cycling and Vibration 36011.9 Stress Screening – Production Vibration Fixture Design 363References 365Appendix 1: Physical Properties of Materials 367Appendix 2: Unit Conversion Tables 377Index 383

Mr. Norman Pascoe, MIT Consultant (retired), UKThe author has worked for forty three years in the fields of Environmental Testing , Quality and Reliability and Environmental Stress Screening. Since 1996 he has worked as a Reliability Technology consultant to some leading telecommunications and aerospace industries. Before becoming a consultant Norman served for five years as European Product Assurance adviser to Nortel Networks Limited.Mr Pascoe has presented papers at seminars and conferences in North America, the UK and other European countries. He became a member of the Society of Environmental Engineers in December 1987 and was elected a Fellow of the Society of Environmental Engineers in April 1998.

• Foreword by Michael Pecht ixSeries Editor’s Preface xiPreface xiiiAbout the Author xviiAcknowledgements xix1 The Origins and Evolution of Quality and Reliability 11.1 Sixty Years of Evolving Electronic Equipment Technology 11.2 Manufacturing Processes – From Manual Skills to Automation 31.3 Soldering Systems 41.4 Component Placement Machines 51.5 Automatic Test Equipment 51.6 Lean Manufacturing 51.7 Outsourcing 91.8 Electronic System Reliability – Folklore versus Reality 91.9 The ‘Bathtub’ Curve 111.10 The Truth about Arrhenius 131.11 The Demise of MIL-HDBK- 217 151.12 The Benefits of Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Products 181.13 The MoD SMART Procurement Initiative 201.14 Why do Items Fail? 211.15 The Importance of Understanding Physics of Failure (PoF) 23Summary and Questions 23References 252 Product Lifecycle Management 272.1 Overview 272.2 Project Management 292.3 Project Initiation 312.4 Project Planning 332.5 Project Execution 382.6 Project Closure 412.7 A Process Capability Maturity Model 422.8 When and How to Define The Distribution Strategy 472.9 Transfer of Design to Manufacturing – The High-Risk Phase 482.10 Outsourcing – Understanding and Minimising the Risks 492.11 How Product Reliability is Increasingly Threatened in the Twenty-First Century 50Summary and Questions 51References 523 The Physics of Failure 533.1 Overview 533.2 Background 543.3 Potential Failure Mechanisms in Materials and Components 563.4 Techniques for Failure Analysis of Components and Assemblies 713.5 Transition from Tin-Lead to Lead-Free Soldering 753.6 High-Temperature Electronics and Extreme-Temperature Electronics 773.7 Some Illustrations of Failure Mechanisms 79Summary and Questions 86References 874 Heat Transfer – Theory and Practice 894.1 Overview 894.2 Conduction 904.3 Convection 964.4 Radiation 1004.5 Thermal Management 1064.6 Principles of Temperature Measurement 1064.7 Temperature Cycling and Thermal Shock 110Summary and Questions 111References 1125 Shock and Vibration – Theory and Practice 1135.1 Overview 1135.2 Sources of Shock Pulses in the Real Environment 1145.3 Response of Electronic Equipment to Shock Pulses 1155.4 Shock Testing 1165.5 Product Shock Fragility 1205.6 Shock and Vibration Isolation Techniques 1265.7 Sources of Vibration in the Real Environment 1335.8 Response of Electronic Equipment to Vibration 1345.9 Vibration Testing 1345.10 Vibration-Test Fixtures 139Summary and Questions 145References 1476 Achieving Environmental-Test Realism 1496.1 Overview 1496.2 Environmental-Testing Objectives 1506.3 Environmental-Test Specifications and Standards 1526.4 Quality Standards 1576.5 The Role of the Test Technician 1586.6 Mechanical Testing 1596.7 Climatic Testing 1646.8 Chemical and Biological Testing 1686.9 Combined Environment Testing 1696.10 Electromagnetic Compatibility 1756.11 Avoiding Misinterpretation of Test Standards and Specifications 179Summary and Questions 181References 1837 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Design 1857.1 Overview 1857.2 Robust Design and Quality Loss Function 1867.3 Six Sigma Quality 1927.4 Concept, Parameter and Tolerance Design 1957.5 Understanding Product Whole Lifecycle Environment 1997.6 Defining User Requirement for Failure-Free Operation 2037.7 Component Anatomy, Materials and Mechanical Architecture 2057.8 Design for Testability 2067.9 Design for Manufacturability 2117.10 Define Product Distribution Strategy 213Summary and Questions 215References 2168 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Development 2178.1 Overview 2178.2 Understanding and Achieving Test Realism 2188.3 Qualification Testing 2198.4 Stress Margin Analysis and Functional Performance Stability 2198.5 Premature Failure Stimulation 2298.6 Accelerated Ageing vs. Accelerated Life Testing 2298.7 Design and Proving of Distribution Packaging 232Summary and Questions 247References 2489 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Manufacturing 2519.1 Overview 2519.2 Manufacturing Planning 2529.3 Manufacturing Process Capability 2539.4 Manufacturing Process Management and Control 2579.5 Non-invasive Inspection Techniques 2679.6 Manufacturing Handling Procedures 2699.7 Lead-Free Soldering – A True Perspective 2799.8 Conformal Coating 2819.9 Production Reliability Acceptance Testing 287Summary and Questions 288References 28910 Environmental-Stress Screening 29110.1 Overview 29110.2 The Origins of ESS 29110.3 Thermal-Stress Screening 29410.4 Developing a Thermal-Stress Screen 31310.5 Vibration-Stress Screening 31510.6 Developing a Vibration-Stress Screen 31710.7 Combined Environment-Stress Screening 32610.8 Other Stress Screening Methodologies 32710.9 Estimating Product Life Consumed by Stress Screening 32810.10 An Environmental-Stress Screening Case Study 329Summary and Questions 334References 33511 Some Worked Examples 33711.1 Overview 33711.2 Thermal Expansion Stresses Generated within a PTH Due to Temperature Cycling 34011.3 Shear Tear-Out Stresses in Through-Hole Solder Joints 34211.4 Axial Forces on a Through-Hole Component Lead Wire 34611.5 SMC QFP – Solder-Joint Shear Stresses 34811.6 Frequency and Peak Half-Amplitude Displacement Calculations 35711.7 Random Vibration – Converting G2/Hz to GRMS 35811.8 Accelerated Ageing – Temperature Cycling and Vibration 36011.9 Stress Screening – Production Vibration Fixture Design 363References 365Appendix 1: Physical Properties of Materials 367Appendix 2: Unit Conversion Tables 377Index 383

Mr. Norman Pascoe, MIT Consultant (retired), UKThe author has worked for forty three years in the fields of Environmental Testing , Quality and Reliability and Environmental Stress Screening. Since 1996 he has worked as a Reliability Technology consultant to some leading telecommunications and aerospace industries. Before becoming a consultant Norman served for five years as European Product Assurance adviser to Nortel Networks Limited.Mr Pascoe has presented papers at seminars and conferences in North America, the UK and other European countries. He became a member of the Society of Environmental Engineers in December 1987 and was elected a Fellow of the Society of Environmental Engineers in April 1998.

• Foreword by Michael Pecht ixSeries Editor’s Preface xiPreface xiiiAbout the Author xviiAcknowledgements xix1 The Origins and Evolution of Quality and Reliability 11.1 Sixty Years of Evolving Electronic Equipment Technology 11.2 Manufacturing Processes – From Manual Skills to Automation 31.3 Soldering Systems 41.4 Component Placement Machines 51.5 Automatic Test Equipment 51.6 Lean Manufacturing 51.7 Outsourcing 91.8 Electronic System Reliability – Folklore versus Reality 91.9 The ‘Bathtub’ Curve 111.10 The Truth about Arrhenius 131.11 The Demise of MIL-HDBK- 217 151.12 The Benefits of Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Products 181.13 The MoD SMART Procurement Initiative 201.14 Why do Items Fail? 211.15 The Importance of Understanding Physics of Failure (PoF) 23Summary and Questions 23References 252 Product Lifecycle Management 272.1 Overview 272.2 Project Management 292.3 Project Initiation 312.4 Project Planning 332.5 Project Execution 382.6 Project Closure 412.7 A Process Capability Maturity Model 422.8 When and How to Define The Distribution Strategy 472.9 Transfer of Design to Manufacturing – The High-Risk Phase 482.10 Outsourcing – Understanding and Minimising the Risks 492.11 How Product Reliability is Increasingly Threatened in the Twenty-First Century 50Summary and Questions 51References 523 The Physics of Failure 533.1 Overview 533.2 Background 543.3 Potential Failure Mechanisms in Materials and Components 563.4 Techniques for Failure Analysis of Components and Assemblies 713.5 Transition from Tin-Lead to Lead-Free Soldering 753.6 High-Temperature Electronics and Extreme-Temperature Electronics 773.7 Some Illustrations of Failure Mechanisms 79Summary and Questions 86References 874 Heat Transfer – Theory and Practice 894.1 Overview 894.2 Conduction 904.3 Convection 964.4 Radiation 1004.5 Thermal Management 1064.6 Principles of Temperature Measurement 1064.7 Temperature Cycling and Thermal Shock 110Summary and Questions 111References 1125 Shock and Vibration – Theory and Practice 1135.1 Overview 1135.2 Sources of Shock Pulses in the Real Environment 1145.3 Response of Electronic Equipment to Shock Pulses 1155.4 Shock Testing 1165.5 Product Shock Fragility 1205.6 Shock and Vibration Isolation Techniques 1265.7 Sources of Vibration in the Real Environment 1335.8 Response of Electronic Equipment to Vibration 1345.9 Vibration Testing 1345.10 Vibration-Test Fixtures 139Summary and Questions 145References 1476 Achieving Environmental-Test Realism 1496.1 Overview 1496.2 Environmental-Testing Objectives 1506.3 Environmental-Test Specifications and Standards 1526.4 Quality Standards 1576.5 The Role of the Test Technician 1586.6 Mechanical Testing 1596.7 Climatic Testing 1646.8 Chemical and Biological Testing 1686.9 Combined Environment Testing 1696.10 Electromagnetic Compatibility 1756.11 Avoiding Misinterpretation of Test Standards and Specifications 179Summary and Questions 181References 1837 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Design 1857.1 Overview 1857.2 Robust Design and Quality Loss Function 1867.3 Six Sigma Quality 1927.4 Concept, Parameter and Tolerance Design 1957.5 Understanding Product Whole Lifecycle Environment 1997.6 Defining User Requirement for Failure-Free Operation 2037.7 Component Anatomy, Materials and Mechanical Architecture 2057.8 Design for Testability 2067.9 Design for Manufacturability 2117.10 Define Product Distribution Strategy 213Summary and Questions 215References 2168 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Development 2178.1 Overview 2178.2 Understanding and Achieving Test Realism 2188.3 Qualification Testing 2198.4 Stress Margin Analysis and Functional Performance Stability 2198.5 Premature Failure Stimulation 2298.6 Accelerated Ageing vs. Accelerated Life Testing 2298.7 Design and Proving of Distribution Packaging 232Summary and Questions 247References 2489 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Manufacturing 2519.1 Overview 2519.2 Manufacturing Planning 2529.3 Manufacturing Process Capability 2539.4 Manufacturing Process Management and Control 2579.5 Non-invasive Inspection Techniques 2679.6 Manufacturing Handling Procedures 2699.7 Lead-Free Soldering – A True Perspective 2799.8 Conformal Coating 2819.9 Production Reliability Acceptance Testing 287Summary and Questions 288References 28910 Environmental-Stress Screening 29110.1 Overview 29110.2 The Origins of ESS 29110.3 Thermal-Stress Screening 29410.4 Developing a Thermal-Stress Screen 31310.5 Vibration-Stress Screening 31510.6 Developing a Vibration-Stress Screen 31710.7 Combined Environment-Stress Screening 32610.8 Other Stress Screening Methodologies 32710.9 Estimating Product Life Consumed by Stress Screening 32810.10 An Environmental-Stress Screening Case Study 329Summary and Questions 334References 33511 Some Worked Examples 33711.1 Overview 33711.2 Thermal Expansion Stresses Generated within a PTH Due to Temperature Cycling 34011.3 Shear Tear-Out Stresses in Through-Hole Solder Joints 34211.4 Axial Forces on a Through-Hole Component Lead Wire 34611.5 SMC QFP – Solder-Joint Shear Stresses 34811.6 Frequency and Peak Half-Amplitude Displacement Calculations 35711.7 Random Vibration – Converting G2/Hz to GRMS 35811.8 Accelerated Ageing – Temperature Cycling and Vibration 36011.9 Stress Screening – Production Vibration Fixture Design 363References 365Appendix 1: Physical Properties of Materials 367Appendix 2: Unit Conversion Tables 377Index 383