Introduction to Nanotechnology

CHARLES P. POOLE Jr., PhD, a professor emeritus in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the University of South Carolina is a member of the USC nanotechnology center. FRANK J. OWENS, PhD, is a senior research scientist of the U.S. Army's Armament Research, Development, and Engineering Center, and a professor of physics in the graduate school of Hunter College of the City University of New York.Both authors are Fellows of the American Physical Society.

"...recommended for research scientists." (IEEE Circuits and Devices, July/August 2005) "...a very nice reference text...gives a solid overview of the topics and techniques..." (MRS Bulletin, May 2005) "...a unique text for exploration of nanotechnology basics..." (IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Medicine, March/April 2005) "The two authors working together have maintained a consistent perspective and level throughout the book." (Physics Today, September 2004) "...well written and nicely illustrated...offers a large amount of useful information to those who want to be introduced to the nanotechnologies..." (Clinical Chemistry, Vol. 50, No. 2, May 2004) "The book has achieved its goal of providing a summary and commentary on this subject." (JOM, February 26, 2004) "...the authors have achieved their aims and have hit the right tone and level of treatment...should also be suitable for advanced students...who are interested in the field..." (Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2004/43) "...a fascinating overview of nanotechnology and its applications. It offers a complete picture of the diversity of the technology's applications." (International Journal of General Systems, December 2003) "...nicely designed, highly readable, and stylistically coherent...a superb addition to an already first-class lineup of contemporary textbooks on nanotechnology..." (Annals of Biomedical Engineering, Issue 32:02) "...an introduction and overview of this innovative and increasingly important area of research..." (Materials Evaluation, August 2003) "...wonderful introductory overview...an invaluable interdisciplinary look at the science of miniaturization and mesoscopic materials...an important resource for technical administrators and managers, as well as students and individuals..." (Polymer News) "...an excellent introduction to nanotechnology, especially for researchers who do not currently work in the field...provides a fantastic overview of nanotechnology and would appeal to anyone wanting to learn more about this exciting area...a great book..." (IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine)

• Preface xi1 Introduction 12 Introduction to Physics of the Solid State 82.1 Structure 82.1.1 Size Dependence of Properties 82.1.2 Crystal Structures 92.1.3 Face-Centered Cubic Nanoparticles 122.1.4 Tetrahedrally Bonded Semiconductor Structures 152.1.5 Lattice Vibrations 182.2 Energy Bands 202.2.1 Insulators, Semiconductors, and Conductors 202.2.2 Reciprocal Space 222.2.3 Energy Bonds and Gaps of Semiconductors 232.2.4 Effective Masses 282.2.5 Fermi Surfaces 292.3 Localized Particles 302.3.1 Donors, Acceptors, and Deep Traps 302.3.2 Mobility 312.3.3 Excitons 323 Methods of Measuring Properties 353.1 Introduction 353.2 Structure 363.2.1 Atomic Structures 363.2.2 Crystallography 373.2.3 Particle Size Determination 423.2.4 Surface Structure 453.3 Microscopy 463.3.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy 463.3.2 Field Ion Microscopy 513.3.3 Scanning Microscopy 513.4 Spectroscopy 583.4.1 Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy 583.4.2 Photoemission and X-Ray Spectroscopy 623.4.3 Magnetic Resonance 684 Properties of Individual Nanoparticles 724.1 Introduction 724.2 Metal Nanoclusters 744.2.1 Magic Numbers 744.2.2 Theoretical Modeling of Nanoparticles 754.2.3 Geometric Structure 784.2.4 Electronic Structure 814.2.5 Reactivity 834.2.6 Fluctuations 864.2.7 Magnetic Clusters 864.2.8 Bulk to Nanotransition 884.3 Semiconducting Nanoparticles 904.3.1 Optical Properties 904.3.2 Photofragmentation 924.3.3 Coulombic Explosion 934.4 Rare Gas and Molecular Clusters 944.4.1 Inert-Gas Clusters 944.4.2 Superfluid Clusters 954.4.3 Molecular Clusters 964.5 Methods of Synthesis 974.5.1 RF Plasma 974.5.2 Chemical Methods 984.5.3 Thermolysis 994.5.4 Pulsed Laser Methods 1004.6 Conclusion 1015 Carbon Nanostructures 1035.1 Introduction 1035.2 Carbon Molecules 1035.2.1 Nature of the Carbon Bond 1035.2.2 New Carbon Structures 1055.3 Carbon Clusters 1065.3.1 Small Carbon Clusters 1065.3.2 Discovery of C60 1075.3.3 Structure of C60 and Its Crystal 1105.3.4 Alkali-Doped C60 1105.3.5 Superconductivity in C60 1125.3.6 Larger and Smaller Fullerenes 1135.3.7 Other Buckyballs 1135.4 Carbon Nanotubes 1145.4.1 Fabrication 1145.4.2 Structure 1175.4.3 Electrical Properties 1185.4.4 Vibrational Properties 1225.4.5 Mechanical Properties 1235.5 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 1255.5.1 Field Emission and Shielding 1255.5.2 Computers 1265.5.3 Fuel Cells 1275.5.4 Chemical Sensors 1285.5.5 Catalysis 1295.5.6 Mechanical Reinforcement 1306 Bulk Nanostructured Materials 1336.1 Solid Disordered Nanostructures 1336.1.1 Methods of Synthesis 1336.1.2 Failure Mechanisms of Conventional Grain-Sized Materials 1376.1.3 Mechanical Properties 1396.1.4 Nanostructured Multilayers 1416.1.5 Electrical Properties 1426.1.6 Other Properties 1476.1.7 Metal Nanocluster Composite Glasses 1486.1.8 Porous Silicon 1506.2 Nanostructured Crystals 1536.2.1 Natural Nanocrystals 1536.2.2 Computational Prediction of Cluster Lattices 1536.2.3 Arrays of Nanoparticles in Zeolites 1546.2.4 Crystals of Metal Nanoparticles 1576.2.5 Nanoparticle Lattices in Colloidal Suspensions 1586.2.6 Photonic Crystals 1597 Nanostructured Ferromagnetism 1657.1 Basics of Ferromagnetism 1657.2 Effect of Bulk Nanostructuring of Magnetic Properties 1707.3 Dynamics of Nanomagnets 1727.4 Nanopore Containment of Magnetic Particles 1767.5 Nanocarbon Ferromagnets 1777.6 Giant and Colossal Magnetoresistance 1817.7 Ferrofluids 1868 Optical and Vibrational Spectroscopy 1948.1 Introduction 1948.2 Infrared Frequency Range 1968.2.1 Spectroscopy of Semiconductors; Excitons 1968.2.2 Infrared Surface Spectroscopy 1988.2.3 Raman Spectroscopy 2038.2.4 Brillouin Spectroscopy 2108.3 Luminescence 2138.3.1 Photoluminescence 2138.3.2 Surface States 2158.3.3 Thermoluminescence 2218.4 Nanostructures in Zeolite Cages 2229 Quantum Wells, Wires, and Dots 2269.1 Introduction 2269.2 Preparation of Quantum Nanostructures 2279.3 Size and Dimensionality Effects 2319.3.1 Size Effects 2319.3.2 Conduction Electrons and Dimensionality 2339.3.3 Fermi Gas and Density of States 2349.3.4 Potential Wells 2369.3.5 Partial Confinement 2419.3.6 Properties Dependent on Density of States 2429.4 Excitons 2449.5 Single-Electron Tunneling 2459.6 Applications 2489.6.1 Infrared Detectors 2489.6.2 Quantum Dot Lasers 2519.7 Superconductivity 25310 Self-Assembly and Catalysis 25710.1 Self-Assembly 25710.1.1 Process of Self-Assembly 25710.1.2 Semiconductor Islands 25810.1.3 Monolayers 26010.2 Catalysis 26410.2.1 Nature of Catalysis 26410.2.2 Surface Area of Nanoparticles 26410.2.3 Porous Materials 26810.2.4 Pillared Clays 27310.2.5 Colloids 27711 Organic Compounds and Polymers 28111.1 Introduction 28111.2 Forming and Characterizing Polymers 28311.2.1 Polymerization 28311.2.2 Sizes of Polymers 28411.3 Nanocrystals 28511.3.1 Condensed Ring Types 28511.3.2 Polydiacetylene Types 28911.4 Polymers 29211.4.1 Conductive Polymers 29211.4.2 Block Copolymers 29311.5 Supramolecular Structures 29511.5.1 Transition-Metal-Mediated Types 29511.5.2 Dendritic Molecules 29611.5.3 Supramolecular Dendrimers 30211.5.4 Micelles 30512 Biological Materials 31012.1 Introduction 31012.2 Biological Building Blocks 31112.2.1 Sizes of Building Blocks and Nanostructures 31112.2.2 Polypeptide Nanowire and Protein Nanoparticle 31412.3 Nucleic Acids 31612.3.1 DNA Double Nanowire 31612.3.2 Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis 32212.4 Biological Nanostructures 32412.4.1 Examples of Proteins 32412.4.2 Micelles and Vesicles 32612.4.3 Multilayer Films 32913 Nanomachines and Nanodevices 33213.1 Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMSs) 33213.2 Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMSs) 33513.2.1 Fabrication 33513.2.2 Nanodevices and Nanomachines 33913.3 Molecular and Supramolecular Switches 345A Formulas for Dimensionality 357A.1 Introduction 357A.2 Delocalization 357A.3 Partial Confinement 358B Tabulations of Semiconducting Material Properties 361Index 371