Nanotechnology

LOUIS THEODORE, Eng. Sc.D., is a consultant for Theodore Tutorials, a company specializing in providing training solutions to industry, academia, and government. In addition to receiving awards from both the International Air and Waste Management Association and the American Society for Engineering Education, Dr. Theodore is the author/coauthor of numerous books, including Nanotechnology: Environmental Implications and Solutions; Introduction to Hazardous Waste Incineration, Second Edition; and Handbook of Chemical and Environmental Engineering Calculations (all published by Wiley).

"…not only be helpful for students of this relatively new science but students of several related sciences…and anyone in the field." (E-STREAMS, June 2007)   "...would benefit students and engineers or scientists working with nanomaterials or those needing to brush up on general chemistry or who need a reference book on various chemistry calculations." (IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, November/December 2006)"…the author has done an exceedingly good job at providing problems and their solutions." (Journal of Hazardous Materials, September 1, 2006)

• Preface xviiIntroduction xixPART 1: CHEMISTRY FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES 11 Units, Conversion Constants, and Dimensional Analysis 31.1 Background on the Metric System 41.2 Describe the SI System of Units 61.3 The Conversion Constant gc 91.4 Unit Conversion Factors: General Approach 101.5 Temperature Conversions 111.6 Pressure Calculations 111.7 Density and Thermal Conductivity 131.8 Viscosity Conversions 141.9 Air Quality Standard 141.10 Conversion Factors for Particulate Measurements 151.11 Significant Figures and Scientific Notation 151.12 Uncertainty in Measurement 172 Atoms, Elements, and the Periodic Table 192.1 Atomic Theory 212.2 The Avogadro Number 212.3 Mass and Size of Atoms 222.4 Atomic Conversions 232.5 Atomic Number, Atomic Weight, and Mass Number 242.6 Bismuth Application 242.7 Elements 242.8 Symbols for Elements 272.9 Periodic Table Application 282.10 Isotopes 293 Molecular Rearrangements 313.1 License Plate Sets 313.2 Chemical Permutations and Combinations 323.3 Formula Weight and Molecular Weight 343.4 Mole/Molecule Relationship 343.5 Pollutant Chemical Formulas 353.6 Stoichiometry 363.7 Limiting and Excess Reactants 363.8 Combustion of Chlorobenzene 373.9 Metal Alloy Calculation 393.10 Chemical Production 404 Concentration Terms 434.1 Density, Specific Gravity, and Bulk Density 434.2 Classes of Solution 454.3 Molality versus Molarity 454.4 Molar Relationships 464.5 Concentration Conversion 474.6 Chlorine Concentration 484.7 Trace Concentration 494.8 Ash Emission 504.9 Dilution Factor 514.10 Nano Exhaust to Atmosphere 524.11 Flue Gas Analysis 524.12 pH 535 Particle Size, Surface Area, and Volume 555.1 Sphere, Cube, Rectangular Parallelepiped, and Cylinder 565.2 Parallelogram, Triangle, and Trapezoid 575.3 Polygons 575.4 Elipse and Ellipsoid 585.5 Cones 585.6 Torus 595.7 Area to Volume Ratios 595.8 Area to Volume Calculation 605.9 Increase in Sphere Surface Area 605.10 Increase in Cube Surface Area 616 Materials Science Principles 636.1 Metals, Polymers, and Ceramics 636.2 Composites, Semiconductors, and Biomaterials 646.3 Crystal Coordination Numbers 646.4 Geometry of Metallic Unit Cells 706.5 Geometry of Ionic Unit Cells 756.6 Packing Factor 786.7 Density Calculation 806.8 Directions and Planes 836.9 Linear Density 886.10 Planar Density 907 Physical and Chemical Property Estimation 957.1 Property Differences 967.2 Material Selection 977.3 Vapor Pressure 977.4 Vapor Pressure Calculation 987.5 Heat of Vaporization From Vapor Pressure Data 997.6 Critical and Reduced Properties 1007.7 Estimating Enthalpy of Vaporization 1017.8 Viscosity 1047.9 Thermal Conductivity 1067.10 Thermal Conductivity Application 1087.11 Nokay Equation and Lydersen’s Method 1097.12 The Rihani and Doraiswamy Procedure, and the Lee–Kesler Equation 113References: Part 1 117PART 2: PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 1198 Nature of Particulates 1218.1 Definition of Particulates 1218.2 Dust, Smoke, and Fumes 1228.3 Mist and Drizzle 1238.4 Changing Properties 1238.5 Dust Explosions 1238.6 Adsorption and Catalytic Activity in the Atmosphere 1258.7 Particle Size 1258.8 Particle Volume and Surface Area 1268.9 Volume/Surface Area Ratios 1278.10 Particle Formation 1289 Particle Size Distribution 1319.1 Representative Sampling 1319.2 Typical Particle Size Ranges 1329.3 Particle Size Distribution and Concentration for Industrial Particulates 1329.4 Particle Size Distribution 1339.5 Median and Mean Particle Size 1339.6 Standard Deviation 1369.7 The Frequency Distribution Curve 1379.8 The Cumulative Distribution Curve 1389.9 The Normal Distribution 1399.10 The Log Normal Distribution 1419.11 Effect of Size Distribution on Cumulative Distribution Plots 1439.12 Nanoparticle Size Variation With Time 14510 Particle Sizing and Measurement Methods 15110.1 Tyler and U.S. Standard Screens 15210.2 Equivalent Diameter Terms 15410.3 Aerodynamic Diameter 15510.4 Sizing Devices 15710.5 Rectangular Conduit Sampling 15910.6 Volumetric Flow Rate Calculation 16010.7 Particle Mass Flow Rate Calculation 16210.8 Average Particle Concentration 16310.9 Equal Annular Areas for Circular Ducts 16410.10 Traverse Point Location in Circular Ducts 16510.11 Duct Flow Equation Derivation 16610.12 Source Characteristics and Variations 16811 Fluid Particle Dynamics 17111.1 The Gravitational Force 17211.2 The Buoyant Force 17211.3 The Drag Force 17411.4 The Drag Coefficient 17411.5 Equation of Particle Motion/Balance of Forces on a Particle 17611.6 Particle Settling Velocity Equations 17711.7 Determination of the Flow Regime 17811.8 Settling Velocity Application 17911.9 The Cunningham Correction Factor 18011.10 Cunningham Correction Factor Values for Air at Atmospheric Pressure 18111.11 Particle Settling Velocity – Different Regimes 18211.12 Brownian Motion/Molecular Diffusion 18612 Particle Collection Mechanisms 18712.1 Gravity 18812.2 Centrifugal Force 18812.3 Inertial Impaction and Interception 19012.4 Electrostatic Effects 19212.5 Thermophoresis and Diffusiophoresis 19312.6 Acceleration Effects 19412.7 Brownian Motion/Molecular Diffusion Effects 19412.8 Nonspherical Particles 19612.9 Wall Effects 19712.10 Multiparticle Effects 19812.11 Multidimensional Flow 19812.12 Collection Efficiency for Nanosized/Submicron Particles 19913 Particle Collection Efficiency 20113.1 Collection Efficiency: Loading Data 20213.2 Collection Efficiency: Mass Rate 20213.3 Efficiency of Multiple Collectors 20413.4 Penetration 20413.5 Collection Efficiency: Numbers Basis 20513.6 Particle Size–Collection Efficiency Relationships 20613.7 Collection Efficiency: Surface Area Basis 20713.8 Particle Size Distribution/Size–Efficiency Calculation 20813.9 Check for Emission Standards Compliance: Numbers Basis 21013.10 Anderson 2000 Sampler 211References: Part 2 215PART 3: APPLICATIONS 21714 Legal Considerations 21914.1 Intellectual Property Law 21914.2 Patents 22014.3 Contract Law 22014.4 Tort Law 22114.5 Recent Patent Activity 22214.6 Conservation Law For Mass 22214.7 Conservation Law for Energy 22414.8 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 22614.9 Allowable Patent Application Claims 22814.10 Practicing One’s Own Invention 22915 Size Reduction 23115.1 Size Reduction Objectives 23115.2 Plasma-Based and Flame-Hydrolysis Methods 23215.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition and Electrodeposition 23315.4 Sol-Gel Processing 23315.5 Mechanical Crushing 23515.6 Promising Technologies 23515.7 Energy and Power Requirements 23615.8 Potential Dust Explosions With Size Reduction 23815.9 Material Balance Size Reduction 23815.10 Size Reduction Surface Area Increase 23915.11 Fines Eductor Application 24115.12 Fines Eductor Size Reduction 24216 Prime Materials 24516.1 Metals 24616.2 Iron 24616.3 Aluminum 24716.4 Nickel 24716.5 Silver 24816.6 Gold 24816.7 Iron Oxides 24816.8 Aluminum Oxide 24916.9 Zirconium Dioxide 24916.10 Titanium Dioxide 25016.11 Zinc Oxide 25116.12 Silica Products 25117 Production Manufacturing Routes 25317.1 Carbon Nanotubes and Buckyballs 25417.2 Semiconductor Manufacturing 25517.3 Advanced Composites 25617.4 Advanced Ceramics 25817.5 Catalytic and Photocatalytic Applications 26017.6 Gas Sensors and Other Analytical Devices 26117.7 Consumer Products 26217.8 Drug Delivery Mechanisms and Medical Therapeutics 26217.9 Microelectronics Applications 26417.10 Future Activites 26418 Ventilation 26718.1 Indoor Air Quality 26818.2 Indoor Air/Ambient Air Comparison 26918.3 Sources of Contaminents in Indoor Air 26918.4 Industrial Ventilation System 27118.5 Dilution Ventilation vs. Local Exhaust Systems 27118.6 Ventilation Definitions 27318.7 Air Exchange Rate 27618.8 Accidental Emission 27818.9 Dilution Ventilation Application 27918.10 Vinyl Chloride Application 28018.11 Ventilation Models 28218.12 Minimum Ventilation Flowrate 28619 Dispersion Considerations 28919.1 Atmospheric Deposition Calculation 29019.2 Ground Deposition of Particles 29119.3 Plume Rise 29319.4 Pasquill–Gifford Model 29419.5 Ground-Level Particle Deposition 29819.6 Line and Area Sources 30019.7 Instantaneous “Puff” Model 30319.8 Instantaneous “Puff” Sources 30619.9 U.S. EPA Dispersion Models 30719.10 Dispersion in Water Systems and Soils 30819.11 Canal Concentration Profile 30919.12 Accidenctal/Emergency Discharge into a Lake/Reservoir 31120 Ethics 31520.1 Determination of Ethical Values 31520.2 Do’s and Don’ts 31620.3 Codes of Ethics 31620.4 The Heavy Metal Dilemma 31720.5 Let Them Worry About It 31920.6 It’s In the Air 32120.7 Cheap at What Price 32220.8 Safety Comes First 32320.9 Intellectual Property 32420.10 There’s No Such Thing as a Free Seminar 325References: Part 3 327PART 4: ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 33121 Environmental Regulations 33321.1 The Regulatory System 33421.2 Air Quality Issues 33521.3 Particulate Loading 33721.4 Clean Air Act Acronyms 33921.5 Water Pollution Control 34221.6 Water Quality Issues 34321.7 Clean Water Act and PWPs 34521.8 Wastewater Composition 34621.9 Solid Waste Management Issues 34821.10 Hazardous Waste Incinerator 34921.11 Nanotechnology Environmental Regulations Overview 35021.12 Nanotechnology Opponents 35222 Toxicology 35322.1 The Science of Toxicology 35322.2 Toxicology Classifications 35422.3 Routes of Exposure 35422.4 Threshold Limit Value (TLV) 35522.5 Toxicology Terminology 35622.6 TLV vs. PEL 35722.7 Toxicity Factors 35722.8 OSHA and NIOSH 35822.9 Toxicology Determination 35922.10 IDLH and Lethal Level 35922.11 Chemical Exposure 36122.12 Threshold Limit Values 36223 Noncarcinogens 36523.1 Hazard Quotient 36523.2 Reference Dose 36623.3 Concept of Threshold 36723.4 Exposure Duration Classification 36823.5 Risk For Multiple Agents: Chronic Exposure 36923.6 Risk for Multiple Agents: Subchronic Exposure 37023.7 Multiple Exposure Pathways 37123.8 MCL and RfD 37223.9 Uncertainly and Modifying Factors 37223.10 Calculating an RfD from NOAEL 37323.11 Metal Plating Facility Application 37423.12 Noncarcinogen Calculation Procedure 37424 Carcinogens 37724.1 Nonthreshold Concept 37724.1 Weight of Evidence and Slope Factor 37824.3 Carcinogenic Toxicity Values 38024.4 Benzene in Water Application 38124.5 Excess Lifetime Cancer Cases 38224.6 Action Level 38224.7 Accidental Spill 38324.8 Uncertainties and Limitations 38424.9 Multiple Chemical Agents and Exposure Pathways 38524.10 Exponential Risk Model 38624.11 Risk Algorithm 38624.12 Risk Algorithm Application for Benzene 38825 Health Risk Assessment 39125.1 Risk Definitions 39225.2 The Health Risk Evaluation Process 39225.3 Standand Values for Individuals 39425.4 Qualitative Risk Scenarios 39525.5 Example of a Health Risk Assessment 39625.6 Chemical Exposure in a Laboratory 39725.7 Laboratory Spill 39825.8 Respirators 39925.9 Performance of a Carbon Cartridge Respirator 40025.10 Sampling Program 40226 Hazard Risk Assessment 40726.1 Example of a Hazard 40826.2 Risk Evaluation Process for Accidents 40826.3 Plant and Process Safety 41126.4 Series and Parallel Systems 41226.5 Binomial Distribution 41326.6 The Poisson Distribution 41426.7 The Weibull Distribution 41526.8 The Normal Distribution 41626.9 Soil Contamination 41926.10 Event Tree Analysis 42026.11 Fault Tree Analysis 42126.12 Upper and Lower Flamability Limits 42527 Epidemiology 42927.1 Historical View 42927.2 Occupational Health 43027.3 Descriptive Studies 43127.4 Probability 43227.5 Prevalence 43227.6 Incidence Rate 43327.7 The Mean 43427.8 The Variance and the Standard Deviation 435References: Part 4 437Appendix Quantum Mechanics 439Index 447