Anne E. Baker is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Amsterdam with a specialisation in psycholinguistics and sign linguistics. Her publications include Taal en taalwetenschap (ed. with René Appel, Kees Hengeveld, Folkert Kuiken, and Pieter Muysken, 2002) and Sign Language Acquisition (ed. with Bencie Woll, 2008).Kees Hengeveld is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Amsterdam with a specialisation in linguistic typology and grammatical theory. His publications include Functional Discourse Grammar: A typologically-based theory of language structure (with J. Lachlan Mackenzie, 2008) and The Theory of Functional Grammar (with Simon C. Dik, 1997).

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• List of Figures and Tables xiiiPreface xviiPart I Language and the Language Faculty 11 From Language to Linguistics 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Languages 51.3 Other Languages 91.4 Differences 151.5 Linguistics 171.6 Different Kinds of Grammar 191.7 The Contents of this Book and the Subfields of Linguistics 22Summary 24Assignments 26Test Yourself 27Acknowledgments and Further Reading 272 The Language User 292.1 Introduction 292.2 Knowledge and Ability: The Cognitive System 302.3 Language and the Brain 342.4 Language Comprehension 372.4.1 Speech Recognition 382.4.2 Word Recognition 392.4.3 Understanding Sentences 412.4.4 Interpretation of Utterances 432.4.5 From Speech Recognition to Interpretation 432.5 Language Production 442.5.1 What Do You Want to Say? 452.5.2 Formulation: Grammatical Encoding 462.5.3 Formulation: Phonological Encoding 482.5.4 Articulation 502.5.5 Speaking: From Intention to Articulation 51Summary 52Assignments 53Test Yourself 54Acknowledgments and Further Reading 553 Language Acquisition 573.1 Introduction 573.2 How Do Children Acquire Language? 593.3 The Order of First Language Acquisition 623.4 Factors that Influence the Acquisition of a Second Language 663.5 The Order of Second Language Acquisition 693.6 Bilingual Development 74Summary 77Assignments 78Test Yourself 79Acknowledgments and Further Reading 80Part II Language and Interaction 814 Discourse 834.1 Introduction 834.2 Interpretation and Inference 844.3 Cooperation 864.4 Conversations 894.5 Coherence Through Linguistic Form 95Summary 98Assignments 99Test Yourself 100Acknowledgments and Further Reading 1015 Speech Acts 1035.1 Introduction 1035.2 An Utterance is an Act 1045.3 Information Structure 1105.4 Pragmatic Appropriateness 114Summary 117Assignments 118Test Yourself 119Acknowledgments and Further Reading 119Part III Sentences and Their Meaning 1216 Constituents and Word Classes 1236.1 Introduction 1236.2 Constituents 1246.3 Sentences, Clauses and Phrases 1266.4 Phrase Types 1276.5 Heads and Modifiers 1306.6 Constituent Structure 1316.7 Phrases Versus Words 1356.8 Word Classes: Content Words 1366.9 Word Classes: Function Words 138Summary 140Assignments 140Test Yourself 142Acknowledgments and Further Reading 1427 Simple Sentences 1437.1 Introduction 1437.2 Functions of Phrases Within the Sentence 1447.3 Valency 1477.4 Semantic Roles 1507.5 Grammatical Roles 1517.6 The Marking of Semantic and Grammatical Roles 1537.7 Reduction of Valency 1547.8 Reflexive Constructions 1557.9 Pronominalisation 157Summary 158Assignments 158Test Yourself 160Acknowledgments and Further Reading 1608 Complex Sentences 1618.1 Introduction 1618.2 The Functions of Embedded Clauses 1628.3 The Forms of Embedded Clauses 1658.4 Interaction between Main Clause and Embedded Clause 1688.4.1 Equi-Deletion 1688.4.2 Raising 1698.4.3 Sequence of Tenses 1708.5 Coordinated Clauses 1728.6 The Form of Coordinated Clauses 173Summary 174Assignments 175Test Yourself 176Acknowledgments and Further Reading 1769 Constituent Order 1779.1 Introduction 1779.2 Constituent Order and Levels of Analysis 1789.3 Constituent Order at the Sentence Level 1799.4 Clause Type 1819.5 Embedded Clauses 1829.6 Complexity 1839.7 The Information Status of Constituents 1849.8 Constituent Order within Constituents 1859.8.1 The Noun Phrase 1869.8.2 The Verb Phrase 1879.9 Correlations 1889.10 Discontinuous Constituents 190Summary 191Assignments 191Test Yourself 192Acknowledgments and Further Reading 19310 Sentence Meaning 19510.1 Introduction 19510.2 Compositionality 19610.3 Noun Phrases: Reference 19710.4 Noun Phrases: Deixis and Anaphora 20310.5 Verb Phrases: Tense and Aspect 20610.6 Verb Phrases: Situation Types 210Summary 214Assignments 214Test Yourself 215Acknowledgments and Further Reading 216Part IV Words and Their Meaning 21711 Lexicon 21911.1 Introduction 21911.2 What is a Word? 22011.3 The Relation Between Word Form and Meaning 22111.4 Content Words and Function Words 22311.5 The Lexicon 22611.6 Kinds of Lexical Information 22811.7 Dictionaries 23011.8 Meaning and Meaning Relations 23211.9 Semantic Description 23511.10 Words Across Languages 236Summary 237Assignments 239Test Yourself 240Acknowledgments and Further Reading 24012 Word Formation 24112.1 Introduction 24112.2 The Internal Composition of Words 24212.3 The Functions of Word Formation 24312.4 Derivation 24512.5 Inflection 24912.6 Morphological Forms 25112.7 The Structure of Words and Their Meanings 25512.8 Differences between Derivation and Inflection 25612.9 Morphological Differences between Languages 258Summary 260Assignments 261Test Yourself 263Acknowledgments and Further Reading 26313 Compounds and Idiomatic Expressions 26513.1 Introduction 26513.2 Structure and Meaning of Compounds 26613.3 Types of Compounds 27013.4 Incorporation 27113.5 Idiomatic Expressions 27213.6 The Meaning of Idiomatic Expressions 274Summary 279Assignments 280Test Yourself 281Acknowledgments and Further Reading 281Part V Speech Sounds 28314 Speaking and Listening – Speech Sounds 28514.1 Introduction 28514.2 Speaking 28714.3 The Speech Signal 28814.4 Hearing and Understanding 29114.5 Speech Sounds 29214.5.1 Introduction 29214.5.2 Pulmonic Consonants 29314.5.3 Non-pulmonic Consonants 29614.5.4 Vowels 29614.5.5 Diphthongs 29714.5.6 Further Features 29814.6 Speech Synthesis and Speech Recognition 298Summary 299Assignments 301Test Yourself 301Acknowledgments and Further Reading 30215 Sound Systems and Phonological Processes 30315.1 Introduction 30315.2 Distinctiveness 30415.3 Sound Systems 30715.4 Distinctive Features 31115.5 Morphophonological Processes 31415.6 Graphemes and Phonemes 316Summary 317Assignments 317Test Yourself 318Acknowledgments and Further Reading 31916 Syllables, Stress and Intonation 32116.1 Introduction 32116.2 The Syllable: Phonotactics 32216.3 The Word: Stress 32616.4 The Sentence: Intonation 32816.5 Rhythm 330Summary 331Assignments 332Test Yourself 333Acknowledgments and Further Reading 333Part VI Languages and Communities 33517 Differences and Similarities between Languages 33717.1 Introduction 33717.2 Similarities between Languages 33917.3 Genetic Relations 34217.4 Language and Culture 34917.5 Language and Thought: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 354Summary 357Assignments 358Test Yourself 359Acknowledgments and Further Reading 35918 Language Variation 36118.1 Introduction 36118.2 What is a Language? 36218.3 What is a Dialect? 36418.4 The Study of Language Variation 36618.5 Language Variation and Social Factors 36918.5.1 Region 37018.5.2 Social Class 37218.5.3 Ethnic Group 37418.5.4 Age 37418.5.5 Gender 37518.6 Other Factors: Situation and Linguistic Context 37718.7 Language Variation and Social Meaning 379Summary 381Assignments 382Test Yourself 382Acknowledgments and Further Reading 38319 Language Change 38519.1 Introduction 38519.2 Historical Linguistics 38619.3 The Process of Change 39019.4 The Role of Social Groups in Language Change 39419.5 Embedding Changes into the Language System 39719.6 The Evaluation of Language Change 399Summary 400Assignments 400Test Yourself 401Acknowledgments and Further Reading 40120 Bilingualism 40320.1 Introduction 40320.2 The Bilingual Community 40420.3 Language Policy 40720.4 Bilingual Education 40820.5 The Bilingual Individual 41020.6 Bilingualism and Interference 41220.7 The Emergence of New Languages 418Summary 421Assignments 422Test Yourself 422Acknowledgments and Further Reading 423References 425Sources of Illustrations 433Index 435

Anne E. Baker is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Amsterdam with a specialisation in psycholinguistics and sign linguistics. Her publications include Taal en taalwetenschap (ed. with René Appel, Kees Hengeveld, Folkert Kuiken, and Pieter Muysken, 2002) and Sign Language Acquisition (ed. with Bencie Woll, 2008).Kees Hengeveld is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Amsterdam with a specialisation in linguistic typology and grammatical theory. His publications include Functional Discourse Grammar: A typologically-based theory of language structure (with J. Lachlan Mackenzie, 2008) and The Theory of Functional Grammar (with Simon C. Dik, 1997).

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• List of Figures and Tables xiiiPreface xviiPart I Language and the Language Faculty 11 From Language to Linguistics 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Languages 51.3 Other Languages 91.4 Differences 151.5 Linguistics 171.6 Different Kinds of Grammar 191.7 The Contents of this Book and the Subfields of Linguistics 22Summary 24Assignments 26Test Yourself 27Acknowledgments and Further Reading 272 The Language User 292.1 Introduction 292.2 Knowledge and Ability: The Cognitive System 302.3 Language and the Brain 342.4 Language Comprehension 372.4.1 Speech Recognition 382.4.2 Word Recognition 392.4.3 Understanding Sentences 412.4.4 Interpretation of Utterances 432.4.5 From Speech Recognition to Interpretation 432.5 Language Production 442.5.1 What Do You Want to Say? 452.5.2 Formulation: Grammatical Encoding 462.5.3 Formulation: Phonological Encoding 482.5.4 Articulation 502.5.5 Speaking: From Intention to Articulation 51Summary 52Assignments 53Test Yourself 54Acknowledgments and Further Reading 553 Language Acquisition 573.1 Introduction 573.2 How Do Children Acquire Language? 593.3 The Order of First Language Acquisition 623.4 Factors that Influence the Acquisition of a Second Language 663.5 The Order of Second Language Acquisition 693.6 Bilingual Development 74Summary 77Assignments 78Test Yourself 79Acknowledgments and Further Reading 80Part II Language and Interaction 814 Discourse 834.1 Introduction 834.2 Interpretation and Inference 844.3 Cooperation 864.4 Conversations 894.5 Coherence Through Linguistic Form 95Summary 98Assignments 99Test Yourself 100Acknowledgments and Further Reading 1015 Speech Acts 1035.1 Introduction 1035.2 An Utterance is an Act 1045.3 Information Structure 1105.4 Pragmatic Appropriateness 114Summary 117Assignments 118Test Yourself 119Acknowledgments and Further Reading 119Part III Sentences and Their Meaning 1216 Constituents and Word Classes 1236.1 Introduction 1236.2 Constituents 1246.3 Sentences, Clauses and Phrases 1266.4 Phrase Types 1276.5 Heads and Modifiers 1306.6 Constituent Structure 1316.7 Phrases Versus Words 1356.8 Word Classes: Content Words 1366.9 Word Classes: Function Words 138Summary 140Assignments 140Test Yourself 142Acknowledgments and Further Reading 1427 Simple Sentences 1437.1 Introduction 1437.2 Functions of Phrases Within the Sentence 1447.3 Valency 1477.4 Semantic Roles 1507.5 Grammatical Roles 1517.6 The Marking of Semantic and Grammatical Roles 1537.7 Reduction of Valency 1547.8 Reflexive Constructions 1557.9 Pronominalisation 157Summary 158Assignments 158Test Yourself 160Acknowledgments and Further Reading 1608 Complex Sentences 1618.1 Introduction 1618.2 The Functions of Embedded Clauses 1628.3 The Forms of Embedded Clauses 1658.4 Interaction between Main Clause and Embedded Clause 1688.4.1 Equi-Deletion 1688.4.2 Raising 1698.4.3 Sequence of Tenses 1708.5 Coordinated Clauses 1728.6 The Form of Coordinated Clauses 173Summary 174Assignments 175Test Yourself 176Acknowledgments and Further Reading 1769 Constituent Order 1779.1 Introduction 1779.2 Constituent Order and Levels of Analysis 1789.3 Constituent Order at the Sentence Level 1799.4 Clause Type 1819.5 Embedded Clauses 1829.6 Complexity 1839.7 The Information Status of Constituents 1849.8 Constituent Order within Constituents 1859.8.1 The Noun Phrase 1869.8.2 The Verb Phrase 1879.9 Correlations 1889.10 Discontinuous Constituents 190Summary 191Assignments 191Test Yourself 192Acknowledgments and Further Reading 19310 Sentence Meaning 19510.1 Introduction 19510.2 Compositionality 19610.3 Noun Phrases: Reference 19710.4 Noun Phrases: Deixis and Anaphora 20310.5 Verb Phrases: Tense and Aspect 20610.6 Verb Phrases: Situation Types 210Summary 214Assignments 214Test Yourself 215Acknowledgments and Further Reading 216Part IV Words and Their Meaning 21711 Lexicon 21911.1 Introduction 21911.2 What is a Word? 22011.3 The Relation Between Word Form and Meaning 22111.4 Content Words and Function Words 22311.5 The Lexicon 22611.6 Kinds of Lexical Information 22811.7 Dictionaries 23011.8 Meaning and Meaning Relations 23211.9 Semantic Description 23511.10 Words Across Languages 236Summary 237Assignments 239Test Yourself 240Acknowledgments and Further Reading 24012 Word Formation 24112.1 Introduction 24112.2 The Internal Composition of Words 24212.3 The Functions of Word Formation 24312.4 Derivation 24512.5 Inflection 24912.6 Morphological Forms 25112.7 The Structure of Words and Their Meanings 25512.8 Differences between Derivation and Inflection 25612.9 Morphological Differences between Languages 258Summary 260Assignments 261Test Yourself 263Acknowledgments and Further Reading 26313 Compounds and Idiomatic Expressions 26513.1 Introduction 26513.2 Structure and Meaning of Compounds 26613.3 Types of Compounds 27013.4 Incorporation 27113.5 Idiomatic Expressions 27213.6 The Meaning of Idiomatic Expressions 274Summary 279Assignments 280Test Yourself 281Acknowledgments and Further Reading 281Part V Speech Sounds 28314 Speaking and Listening – Speech Sounds 28514.1 Introduction 28514.2 Speaking 28714.3 The Speech Signal 28814.4 Hearing and Understanding 29114.5 Speech Sounds 29214.5.1 Introduction 29214.5.2 Pulmonic Consonants 29314.5.3 Non-pulmonic Consonants 29614.5.4 Vowels 29614.5.5 Diphthongs 29714.5.6 Further Features 29814.6 Speech Synthesis and Speech Recognition 298Summary 299Assignments 301Test Yourself 301Acknowledgments and Further Reading 30215 Sound Systems and Phonological Processes 30315.1 Introduction 30315.2 Distinctiveness 30415.3 Sound Systems 30715.4 Distinctive Features 31115.5 Morphophonological Processes 31415.6 Graphemes and Phonemes 316Summary 317Assignments 317Test Yourself 318Acknowledgments and Further Reading 31916 Syllables, Stress and Intonation 32116.1 Introduction 32116.2 The Syllable: Phonotactics 32216.3 The Word: Stress 32616.4 The Sentence: Intonation 32816.5 Rhythm 330Summary 331Assignments 332Test Yourself 333Acknowledgments and Further Reading 333Part VI Languages and Communities 33517 Differences and Similarities between Languages 33717.1 Introduction 33717.2 Similarities between Languages 33917.3 Genetic Relations 34217.4 Language and Culture 34917.5 Language and Thought: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 354Summary 357Assignments 358Test Yourself 359Acknowledgments and Further Reading 35918 Language Variation 36118.1 Introduction 36118.2 What is a Language? 36218.3 What is a Dialect? 36418.4 The Study of Language Variation 36618.5 Language Variation and Social Factors 36918.5.1 Region 37018.5.2 Social Class 37218.5.3 Ethnic Group 37418.5.4 Age 37418.5.5 Gender 37518.6 Other Factors: Situation and Linguistic Context 37718.7 Language Variation and Social Meaning 379Summary 381Assignments 382Test Yourself 382Acknowledgments and Further Reading 38319 Language Change 38519.1 Introduction 38519.2 Historical Linguistics 38619.3 The Process of Change 39019.4 The Role of Social Groups in Language Change 39419.5 Embedding Changes into the Language System 39719.6 The Evaluation of Language Change 399Summary 400Assignments 400Test Yourself 401Acknowledgments and Further Reading 40120 Bilingualism 40320.1 Introduction 40320.2 The Bilingual Community 40420.3 Language Policy 40720.4 Bilingual Education 40820.5 The Bilingual Individual 41020.6 Bilingualism and Interference 41220.7 The Emergence of New Languages 418Summary 421Assignments 422Test Yourself 422Acknowledgments and Further Reading 423References 425Sources of Illustrations 433Index 435

Anne E. Baker is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Amsterdam with a specialisation in psycholinguistics and sign linguistics. Her publications include Taal en taalwetenschap (ed. with René Appel, Kees Hengeveld, Folkert Kuiken, and Pieter Muysken, 2002) and Sign Language Acquisition (ed. with Bencie Woll, 2008).Kees Hengeveld is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Amsterdam with a specialisation in linguistic typology and grammatical theory. His publications include Functional Discourse Grammar: A typologically-based theory of language structure (with J. Lachlan Mackenzie, 2008) and The Theory of Functional Grammar (with Simon C. Dik, 1997).

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• List of Figures and Tables xiiiPreface xviiPart I Language and the Language Faculty 11 From Language to Linguistics 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Languages 51.3 Other Languages 91.4 Differences 151.5 Linguistics 171.6 Different Kinds of Grammar 191.7 The Contents of this Book and the Subfields of Linguistics 22Summary 24Assignments 26Test Yourself 27Acknowledgments and Further Reading 272 The Language User 292.1 Introduction 292.2 Knowledge and Ability: The Cognitive System 302.3 Language and the Brain 342.4 Language Comprehension 372.4.1 Speech Recognition 382.4.2 Word Recognition 392.4.3 Understanding Sentences 412.4.4 Interpretation of Utterances 432.4.5 From Speech Recognition to Interpretation 432.5 Language Production 442.5.1 What Do You Want to Say? 452.5.2 Formulation: Grammatical Encoding 462.5.3 Formulation: Phonological Encoding 482.5.4 Articulation 502.5.5 Speaking: From Intention to Articulation 51Summary 52Assignments 53Test Yourself 54Acknowledgments and Further Reading 553 Language Acquisition 573.1 Introduction 573.2 How Do Children Acquire Language? 593.3 The Order of First Language Acquisition 623.4 Factors that Influence the Acquisition of a Second Language 663.5 The Order of Second Language Acquisition 693.6 Bilingual Development 74Summary 77Assignments 78Test Yourself 79Acknowledgments and Further Reading 80Part II Language and Interaction 814 Discourse 834.1 Introduction 834.2 Interpretation and Inference 844.3 Cooperation 864.4 Conversations 894.5 Coherence Through Linguistic Form 95Summary 98Assignments 99Test Yourself 100Acknowledgments and Further Reading 1015 Speech Acts 1035.1 Introduction 1035.2 An Utterance is an Act 1045.3 Information Structure 1105.4 Pragmatic Appropriateness 114Summary 117Assignments 118Test Yourself 119Acknowledgments and Further Reading 119Part III Sentences and Their Meaning 1216 Constituents and Word Classes 1236.1 Introduction 1236.2 Constituents 1246.3 Sentences, Clauses and Phrases 1266.4 Phrase Types 1276.5 Heads and Modifiers 1306.6 Constituent Structure 1316.7 Phrases Versus Words 1356.8 Word Classes: Content Words 1366.9 Word Classes: Function Words 138Summary 140Assignments 140Test Yourself 142Acknowledgments and Further Reading 1427 Simple Sentences 1437.1 Introduction 1437.2 Functions of Phrases Within the Sentence 1447.3 Valency 1477.4 Semantic Roles 1507.5 Grammatical Roles 1517.6 The Marking of Semantic and Grammatical Roles 1537.7 Reduction of Valency 1547.8 Reflexive Constructions 1557.9 Pronominalisation 157Summary 158Assignments 158Test Yourself 160Acknowledgments and Further Reading 1608 Complex Sentences 1618.1 Introduction 1618.2 The Functions of Embedded Clauses 1628.3 The Forms of Embedded Clauses 1658.4 Interaction between Main Clause and Embedded Clause 1688.4.1 Equi-Deletion 1688.4.2 Raising 1698.4.3 Sequence of Tenses 1708.5 Coordinated Clauses 1728.6 The Form of Coordinated Clauses 173Summary 174Assignments 175Test Yourself 176Acknowledgments and Further Reading 1769 Constituent Order 1779.1 Introduction 1779.2 Constituent Order and Levels of Analysis 1789.3 Constituent Order at the Sentence Level 1799.4 Clause Type 1819.5 Embedded Clauses 1829.6 Complexity 1839.7 The Information Status of Constituents 1849.8 Constituent Order within Constituents 1859.8.1 The Noun Phrase 1869.8.2 The Verb Phrase 1879.9 Correlations 1889.10 Discontinuous Constituents 190Summary 191Assignments 191Test Yourself 192Acknowledgments and Further Reading 19310 Sentence Meaning 19510.1 Introduction 19510.2 Compositionality 19610.3 Noun Phrases: Reference 19710.4 Noun Phrases: Deixis and Anaphora 20310.5 Verb Phrases: Tense and Aspect 20610.6 Verb Phrases: Situation Types 210Summary 214Assignments 214Test Yourself 215Acknowledgments and Further Reading 216Part IV Words and Their Meaning 21711 Lexicon 21911.1 Introduction 21911.2 What is a Word? 22011.3 The Relation Between Word Form and Meaning 22111.4 Content Words and Function Words 22311.5 The Lexicon 22611.6 Kinds of Lexical Information 22811.7 Dictionaries 23011.8 Meaning and Meaning Relations 23211.9 Semantic Description 23511.10 Words Across Languages 236Summary 237Assignments 239Test Yourself 240Acknowledgments and Further Reading 24012 Word Formation 24112.1 Introduction 24112.2 The Internal Composition of Words 24212.3 The Functions of Word Formation 24312.4 Derivation 24512.5 Inflection 24912.6 Morphological Forms 25112.7 The Structure of Words and Their Meanings 25512.8 Differences between Derivation and Inflection 25612.9 Morphological Differences between Languages 258Summary 260Assignments 261Test Yourself 263Acknowledgments and Further Reading 26313 Compounds and Idiomatic Expressions 26513.1 Introduction 26513.2 Structure and Meaning of Compounds 26613.3 Types of Compounds 27013.4 Incorporation 27113.5 Idiomatic Expressions 27213.6 The Meaning of Idiomatic Expressions 274Summary 279Assignments 280Test Yourself 281Acknowledgments and Further Reading 281Part V Speech Sounds 28314 Speaking and Listening – Speech Sounds 28514.1 Introduction 28514.2 Speaking 28714.3 The Speech Signal 28814.4 Hearing and Understanding 29114.5 Speech Sounds 29214.5.1 Introduction 29214.5.2 Pulmonic Consonants 29314.5.3 Non-pulmonic Consonants 29614.5.4 Vowels 29614.5.5 Diphthongs 29714.5.6 Further Features 29814.6 Speech Synthesis and Speech Recognition 298Summary 299Assignments 301Test Yourself 301Acknowledgments and Further Reading 30215 Sound Systems and Phonological Processes 30315.1 Introduction 30315.2 Distinctiveness 30415.3 Sound Systems 30715.4 Distinctive Features 31115.5 Morphophonological Processes 31415.6 Graphemes and Phonemes 316Summary 317Assignments 317Test Yourself 318Acknowledgments and Further Reading 31916 Syllables, Stress and Intonation 32116.1 Introduction 32116.2 The Syllable: Phonotactics 32216.3 The Word: Stress 32616.4 The Sentence: Intonation 32816.5 Rhythm 330Summary 331Assignments 332Test Yourself 333Acknowledgments and Further Reading 333Part VI Languages and Communities 33517 Differences and Similarities between Languages 33717.1 Introduction 33717.2 Similarities between Languages 33917.3 Genetic Relations 34217.4 Language and Culture 34917.5 Language and Thought: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 354Summary 357Assignments 358Test Yourself 359Acknowledgments and Further Reading 35918 Language Variation 36118.1 Introduction 36118.2 What is a Language? 36218.3 What is a Dialect? 36418.4 The Study of Language Variation 36618.5 Language Variation and Social Factors 36918.5.1 Region 37018.5.2 Social Class 37218.5.3 Ethnic Group 37418.5.4 Age 37418.5.5 Gender 37518.6 Other Factors: Situation and Linguistic Context 37718.7 Language Variation and Social Meaning 379Summary 381Assignments 382Test Yourself 382Acknowledgments and Further Reading 38319 Language Change 38519.1 Introduction 38519.2 Historical Linguistics 38619.3 The Process of Change 39019.4 The Role of Social Groups in Language Change 39419.5 Embedding Changes into the Language System 39719.6 The Evaluation of Language Change 399Summary 400Assignments 400Test Yourself 401Acknowledgments and Further Reading 40120 Bilingualism 40320.1 Introduction 40320.2 The Bilingual Community 40420.3 Language Policy 40720.4 Bilingual Education 40820.5 The Bilingual Individual 41020.6 Bilingualism and Interference 41220.7 The Emergence of New Languages 418Summary 421Assignments 422Test Yourself 422Acknowledgments and Further Reading 423References 425Sources of Illustrations 433Index 435