Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment

Sandra E. Shumway is a Research Professor in the Department of Marine Sciences, University of Connecticut.

"While it may be intended for policy makers, and we would all support her in this aim, it will clearly be an essential addition to university libraries, a must-have for shellfish researchers and there could also be good reason for shellfish farmers to think about getting hold of a copy, since it is one way to feel extremely positive about what you do - and supported by real hard science information!." (The Grower, 2011)

• List of Contributors xiForeword xiiiPreface xv1 The role of shellfish farms in provision of ecosystem goods and services 3João G. Ferreira, Anthony J.S. Hawkins, and Suzanne B. BrickerIntroduction 3Methods of study 6Ecosystem goods: biomass production 13Ecosystem services: environmental quality 17Literature cited 262 Shellfish aquaculture and the environment: an industry perspective 33William Dewey, Jonathan P. Davis, and Daniel C. CheneyIntroduction 33Shellfish farmers and harvesters history of water quality protection and stewardship roles 35BMPs, the shellfish industry, and the role of available research 42Conclusion 48Literature cited 483 Molluscan shellfish aquaculture and best management practices 51John A. HargreavesIntroduction 51Ecosystem change and shellfish aquaculture 53Classification of impacts 53BMPs 54Assurance labeling 64Pressures to participate in certification programs 65Perspectives on ecolabeling 67Aquaculture certification programs 68Critique of bivalve shellfish ecolabeling efforts in the United States 70Criticisms of certification programs 73Towards more meaningful labeling 75Concluding remarks 77Literature cited 784 Bivalve filter feeding: variability and limits of the aquaculture biofilter 81Peter J. Cranford, J. Evan Ward, and Sandra E. ShumwayIntroduction 81Constraints on maximum feeding activity 82Shellfi sh feeding in nature 85Emerging knowledge on ecosystem interactions with the bivalve biofilter 109Conclusions 111Literature cited 1135 Trophic interactions between phytoplankton and bivalve aquaculture 125Gary H. WikforsThe interdependence of bivalves and phytoplankton 125Bivalve population density: farmed bivalves are naturally gregarious 127Bivalves as consumers and cultivators of phytoplankton 127Summary and prospects 130Acknowledgments 131Literature cited 1316 The application of dynamic modeling to prediction of production carrying capacity in shellfish farming 135Jon Grant and Ramón FilgueiraPhysical oceanographic models 139Filtration and seston depletion 140Single-box models 140Higher-order models 142Fully spatial models 143Population-based models 145Local models 146Optimization 147Application to management 148Modeling environmental impact 149Sustainability and ecosystem-based management 150Literature cited 1517 Bivalve shellfish aquaculture and eutrophication 155JoAnn M. Burkholder and Sandra E. ShumwaySummary 155Introduction 156Most commonly reported: localized changes associated with shellfish aquaculture 158Interpretations from an ecosystem approach 179Modeling efforts to assess relationships between bivalve aquaculture and eutrophication 187Eutrophication of coastal waters from land-based nutrients 192Ecological and economic benefit of bivalve aquaculture in combating eutrophication 195Conclusions 200Literature cited 2018 Mussel farming as a tool for re-eutrophication of coastal waters: experiences from Sweden 217Odd LindahlIntroduction 217Mussel farming: open landscape feeding in the sea 217Estimating the environmental value of mussel farming 219Trading nutrient discharges 222Agricultural environmental aid program and mussel farming 224Added ecosystem services through mussel farming 226The city of lysekil, the first buyer of a nutrient emission quota 226Swedish mussel farming and its markets 227Mussel meal instead of fish meal in organic feeds 229Mussel meal in feeds for organic poultry 230The use of the mussel remainder as fertilizer and biogas production 232Risk assessment of mussels for seafood, feed, and fertilizer 233Conclusions of the Swedish experience 234Literature cited 2359 Expanding shellfi sh aquaculture: a review of the ecological services provided by and impacts of native and cultured bivalves in shellfish-dominated ecosystems 239Loren D. Coen, Brett R. Dumbauld, and Michael L. JudgeIntroduction 239Aquaculture-based systems 249Remaining questions 272Literature cited 27410 Bivalves as bioturbators and bioirrigators 297Joanna Norkko and Sandra E. ShumwayBivalves are key species in soft-sediment habitats 297What are bioturbation and bioirrigation? 298How do healthy soft-sediment bivalve populations affect their surroundings? 303Summary 311Literature cited 31211 Environmental impacts related to mechanical harvest of cultured shellfish 319Kevin D.E. Stokesbury, Edward P. Baker, Bradley P. Harris, and Robert B. RheaultIntroduction 319Literature review 320Experimental design 329Conclusions 334Acknowledgments 335Literature cited 33512 Genetics of shellfish on a human-dominated planet 339Dennis HedgecockIntroduction 339Domestication of shellfish 341Conservation 347Conclusions 352Literature cited 35213 Shellfish diseases and health management 359Ralph A. Elston and Susan E. FordShellfish health management and infectious disease prevention 359Interactions of bivalve shellfish and parasites with the natural environment 360Interactions of hosts and disease agents within the aquaculture environment 367Solutions: 1. Shellfish aquaculture development and health management 370Solutions: 2. Implementing health management for shellfi sh aquaculture 377Summary 385Literature cited 38614 Marine invaders and bivalve aquaculture: sources, impacts, and consequences 395Dianna K. Padilla, Michael J. McCann, and Sandra E. ShumwayIntroduction 395Introduced shellfish from aquaculture 397Species moved with aquaculture 406Introduced species that impact aquaculture 407Recommendations for minimizing spread and impacts of introductions 412Future needs 415Acknowledgments 415Literature cited 41615 Balancing economic development and conservation of living marine resources and habitats: the role of resource managers 425Tessa L. Getchis and Cori M. RoseIntroduction 425Regulatory framework for shellfish aquaculture in the United States 429Environmental best management practices (BMPs) 440Environmental marketing and other incentive programs 440Conclusions 442Literature cited 44316 Education 447Donald WebsterSkills 447Aquaculture-related disciplines 449K-12 education 451Undergraduate degree programs 452Graduate degree programs 4534-H and youth programs 454Extension programs 455Technology transfer 457Conclusion 458Literature cited 45917 The implications of global climate change for molluscan aquaculture 461Edward H. Allison, Marie-Caroline Badjeck, and Kathrin MeinholdIntroduction 461Climate change in the oceans and coastal zones 462The effects of climate change on shellfish aquaculture systems 467Adapting shellfish farming to climate change impacts 478Shellfish aquaculture and climate change mitigation 482Conclusion 484Acknowledgments 485Literature cited 485Index 491