Research Methods for Education

Sandra L. Dika is a professor of educational research at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, where she has taught graduate-level research methods courses since 2010 and served as Ph.D. program director from 2018 to 2025. A first-generation college graduate, she earned her B.Ed. and M.Sc. from the University of Alberta and her Ph.D. in educational research and evaluation from Virginia Tech. Prior to UNC Charlotte, she held positions at the University of Puerto Rico–Mayagüez, Virginia Tech, and Brown University.Dr. Dika’s research focuses on college access, student success, and equity for historically underserved and minoritized populations. She has published more than 75 peer-reviewed articles, book chapters, and proceedings papers, and has led research funded by the Spencer Foundation, National Science Foundation, and the John M. Belk Endowment. She also serves as an external evaluator for STEM education initiatives.Her teaching and mentorship have earned her the UNC Charlotte College of Education’s Excellence in Teaching and Excellence in Research Awards, and she was named a Catalyst Research Fellow in 2018. She has chaired or served on over 40 dissertation committees and has mentored more than 20 student co-authors, with two of her dissertation advisees receiving dissertation of the year awards. Dr. Dika also contributes to graduate curriculum development in research methodology.Outside of academia, she enjoys hiking, traveling, cheering on her children’s sports and hobbies, and connecting with friends and family over coffee or a shared meal.Gregory J. Privitera is a three-time national-award-winning author and a professor of psychology at St. Bonaventure University where he is a recipient of its highest teaching honor, The Award for Professional Excellence in Teaching, and its highest honor for scholarship, The Award for Professional Excellence in Research and Publication. Dr. Privitera received his PhD in behavioral neuroscience in the field of psychology at the State University of New York at Buffalo and continued with his postdoctoral research at Arizona State University. His texts span diverse topics in psychology and the behavioral sciences and include an introductory psychology text, three statistics texts, two research methods texts, and multiple other texts bridging knowledge creation across health, health care, and analytics. In addition, Dr. Privitera has authored more than three dozen peer-reviewed papers aimed at advancing our understanding of health, health literacy, and informing policy in health care. His research has earned recognition by the American Psychological Association and in media to include Oprah’s Magazine, Time Magazine and the Wall Street Journal. He mentors a variety of undergraduate research projects at St. Bonaventure University, where dozens of students, many of whom have gone on to earn graduate and doctoral degrees at various institutions, have coauthored and presented research work. In addition to his teaching, research, and advisement, Dr. Privitera is a veteran of the U.S. Marine Corps, is an identical twin, and is married with two daughters, Grace Ann and Charlotte Jane, and two sons, Aiden Andrew and Luca James.

The strength of [this] book lies in its extensive coverage of a wide range of research designs, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques relevant to educational research. It expertly guides students through quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches, equipping them with the tools necessary to navigate the complexities of educational research. The inclusion of real-world examples and case studies further enhances the students′ understanding of the application of research methods in educational settings. [T]he book is written in a clear and accessible manner.

• PrefaceAcknowledgmentsAbout the AuthorsChapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Thinking and the Science of EducationIntroductionThe Scientific Method and Its Relevance in Educational ResearchApproaches in Acquiring KnowledgeGenerating and Converting Ideas to Hypotheses and TheoriesPerforming a Literature ReviewTesting Your Idea: Confirmation and DisconfirmationChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Classroom DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Question Answer KeyChapter 2: Research EthicsIntroductionEthics in Educational ResearchThe Need for Ethics Committees in Research: A Historical SynopsisEthics in Focus: Classic Examples from PsychologyHuman Participant Research: IRBs and the AERA Code of EthicsChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 3: Scientific Variables, Measurement, and InstrumentationIntroductionDefining Variables, Constructs, and Operational DefinitionsTypes of VariablesScales of MeasurementClassifying Data Collection InstrumentsTests and MeasuresQuestionnaire Items and AdministrationConcepts in Validity and Reliability of MeasurementChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 4: Sampling From PopulationsIntroductionWhy Do Researchers Select Samples?Subjects, Participants, and Sampling MethodsMethods of Sampling: Nonprobability SamplingMethods of Sampling: Probability SamplingSampling Error and Standard Error of the MeanPotential Biases in SamplingChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 5: Choosing a Research DesignIntroductionDesigning a Study to Answer a QuestionCategories of Research DesignInternal and External ValidityDemonstrating Cause in an ExperimentThreats to the Internal Validity of a Research StudyThreats to the External Validity of a Research StudyExternal Validity, Experimentation, and RealismChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 6: Naturalistic and Existing Data Research DesignsIntroductionAn Overview of Naturalistic DesignThe Research Setting: Natural and Contrived SettingsTechniques for Making Unobtrusive ObservationsOperationalizing ObservationsQuantifying ObservationsAn Overview of Existing Data DesignsChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 7 : Survey and Correlational Research DesignsIntroductionAn Overview of Survey DesignsSurveys, Sampling, and Nonresponse BiasSteps in Administering a SurveyThe Structure of Correlational DesignsDescribing the Relationship Between VariablesLimitations in InterpretationCorrelation, Regression, and PredictionChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 8: Introduction to Qualitative ResearchIntroductionWhat Is Qualitative Research?Distinctions Between Qualitative and Quantitative ResearchThree Theoretical Perspectives in Qualitative ResearchSteps in Qualitative ResearchRole of the Researcher and Entry Into the FieldSampling in Qualitative ResearchTypes of Qualitative DataChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Classroom DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 9: Phenomenology, Ethnography, and Grounded Theory DesignsIntroductionAn Overview of Phenomenology DesignsAn Overview of Ethnography DesignsAn Overview of Netnography and Autoethnography DesignsAn Overview of Grounded Theory DesignsChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Classroom DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 10: Narrative Inquiry, Case Study, and Critical Theory DesignsIntroductionNarrative Research DesignsCase Study DesignsCritical Theory DesignsChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Question Answer KeyChapter 11: Quasi-Experimental DesignsIntroductionQuasi-Experiments and Quasi-Independent VariablesOne-Group DesignsQuasi-Experimental Design: Nonequivalent Control Group DesignsQuasi-Experimental Design: Time-Series DesignsChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 12: Single-Case Experimental DesignsIntroductionSingle-Case Designs: Reversal, Multiple-Baseline, Changing Criterion, Alternate TreatmentStandards for Single-Case DesignsAnalysis of Single-Case DesignsChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 13: Group Experimental Designs: Between Subjects, Within Subjects, and FactorialIntroductionConducting Experiments: Between-Subjects DesignCreating Groups and Control of the Independent VariableConducting Experiments: Within-Subjects DesignConducting Experiments: Factorial Experimental DesignsUse of Test Statistics for Group Experimental DesignsChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 14: Mixed Methods Research DesignsIntroductionApplying a Mixed Methods DesignTypes of Mixed Methods Research DesignsAdvanced Mixed Methods DesignsChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 15: Action ResearchIntroductionDistinguishing Traditional Research from Action ResearchTypes of Action ResearchThe Process of Conducting Action ResearchChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 16: Program EvaluationIntroductionThe Fundamentals of Program EvaluationProgram Evaluation Standards, Uses, and LimitationsClassifications of Program EvaluationModels for Program EvaluationSteps in Program EvaluationChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 17: Analysis and Interpretation: Exposition of DataIntroductionDescriptive Statistics: Why Summarize Data?Frequency Distributions: Tables and GraphsMeasures of Central TendencyMeasures of VariabilityGraphing Means and CorrelationsUsing Correlation to Describe ReliabilityStandard Scores, z Scores, Percentile Ranks, and Age/Grade EquivalentsChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 18: Analysis and Interpretation: Making Inferences about DataIntroductionInferential Statistics: What Are We Making Inferences About?Types of Error and PowerParametric Tests: Applying the Decision TreeMain Effects and InteractionsNonparametric Tests: Applying the Decision TreeEffect Size: How Big Is an Effect in the Population?Estimation: What Are the Possible Values of a Parameter?Chapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 19: Analysis and Interpretation: Making Inferences About Qualitative DataIntroductionQualitative Versus Quantitative Data AnalysisDecisions About How to Record Narrative DataDecisions About Qualitative Data Analysis and InterpretationGeneral Process of Qualitative Data AnalysisInterpretations Made Using Different Qualitative Designs in the Data Analysis ProcessCriteria of TrustworthinessChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Class DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyChapter 20: Communicating Research: Preparing Manuscripts, Posters, and TalksIntroductionElements of CommunicationWriting a Manuscript: Writing Style and LanguageElements of an APA-Style ManuscriptLiterature ReviewsReporting Observations in Qualitative ResearchPoster Presentations and Professional TalksChapter SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsQuestions and Activities for Classroom DiscussionLearning Check Answer KeyReview Questions Answer KeyAppendix A: APA-Style Writing, Sample Manuscript, and PostersAppendix B: Instructions for Randomizing and CounterbalancingReferencesIndex