Dr. Sunit Kumar Singh is a Scientist & Project Leader in the Section of Infectious Diseases and Immunobiology, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad, India, Dr. Singh leads a research group in neurovirology, and his broad?areas of expertise?are in?neurovirology and neuroinflammation. Dr. Singh is a serving editorial board member for several journals in the field of infectious disease, including the PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases journal, and he has been the recipient of numerous awards including the Young Scientist Award, the Skinner Memorial Award and the AFS travel grant award.

“I learnt so much from the book and enjoyed reading it. It is definitely a welcome and timely addition to the biomedical literature.”  (Microbiology Today, 1 August 2014)“The healthcare professionals and scientists best equipped to prevent an actual viral apocalypse will have Viral Infections and Global Change at hand, rather than a machete. Or maybe both.”  (Clinical Infectious Diseases, 25 April  2014)

• Foreword xxiPreface xxiiiContributors xxvAbout the Editor xxixPart I General aspects 11 Climate Change And Vector-Borne Viral Diseases 3Ying Zhang, Alana Hansen, and Peng Bi1.1 Introduction 41.2 Epidemiology of VVD 41.3 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 61.4 Invasion of nonzoonotic vvd to humans 141.5 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14References 162 Impact Of Climate Change On Vector-Borne Arboviral Episystems 21Walter J. Tabachnick and Jonathan F. Day2.1 Introduction 222.2 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 242.3 West Nile virus 252.4 Dengue in Florida 282.5 Bluetongue 292.6 Conclusions 31Acknowledgement 32References 323 Influence Of Climate Change On Mosquito Development And Blood-Feeding Patterns 35William E. Walton and William K. Reisen3.1 Introduction 363.2 Mosquito development 373.3 Blood-feeding patterns 46References 524 Environmental Perturbations That Influence Arboviral Host Range: Insights Into Emergence Mechanisms 57Aaron C. Brault and William K. Reisen4.1 Introduction 574.2 The changing environment 594.3 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine encephalitis virus 624.4 Rice, mosquitoes, pigs, and japanese encephalitis virus 634.5 Culex pipiens complex, house sparrows, urbanization, and west Nile virus 664.6 Urbanization, global trade, and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 704.7 Conclusions 71References 715 The Socio-Ecology Of Viral Zoonotic Transfer 77Jonathan D. Mayer and Sarah Paige5.1 Introduction 785.2 Historical perspective 785.3 Human–animal interface 795.4 Surveillance 795.5 Deforestation and fragmentation 805.6 Urbanization 815.7 Examples 825.8 Conclusion 84References 846 Human Behavior And The Epidemiology Of Viral Zoonoses 87Satesh Bidaisee, Cheryl Cox Macpherson, and Calum N.L. Macpherson6.1 Introduction 886.2 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 896.3 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 926.4 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 936.5 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 966.6 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 986.7 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 1016.8 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103References 1047 Global Trave l, Trade, And The Spread Of Viral Infections 111Brian D. Gushulak and Douglas W. MacPherson7.1 Introduction 1127.2 Basic principles 1137.3 An overview of population mobility 1137.4 The dynamics of modern population mobility 1147.5 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 1157.6 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 1177.7 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 1197.8 Potential impact of climate change 1267.9 Conclusion 127References 1288 Effects Of Land-Use Changes And Agricultural Practices On The Emergence And Reemergence Of Human Viral Diseases 133Kimberly Fornace, Marco Liverani, Jonathan Rushton, and Richard Coker8.1 Introduction 1348.2 Ecological and environmental changes 1368.3 Agricultural change 1398.4 Demographic changes 1418.5 Land use, disease emergence, and multifactorial causation 1438.6 Conclusion 145References 1459 Animal Migration And Risk Of Spread Of Viral Infections 151Diann J. Prosser, Jessica Nagel, and John Y. Takekawa9.1 Introduction 1529.2 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread? 1529.3 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 1579.4 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 1669.5 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 1669.6 Combined effects of climate change, disease, and migration 1679.7 Conclusions and future directions 169Acknowledgements 170References 17010 Illegal Animal And (Bush) Meat Trade Associated Risk Of Spread Of Viral Infections 179Christopher Kilonzo, Thomas J. Stopka, and Bruno Chomel10.1 Introduction 18010.2 Search strategy and selection criteria 18010.3 The bushmeat trade 18110.4 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 18110.5 Risk factors and modes of transmission 18310.6 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 18410.7 Case study: The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution of Hiv 18510.8 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 18610.9 Discussion and future directions 18710.10 Prevention and control: From supply and demand to health education techniques 18710.11 New technologies 18810.12 Collaboration: Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 18910.13 Conclusion 190Conflicts of interest 190References 19011 Biological Significance Of Bats As A Natural Reservoir Of Emerging Viruses 195Angela M. Bosco-Lauth and Richard A. Bowen11.1 Introduction 19511.2 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 19611.3 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 19711.4 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 20311.5 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 20511.6 Conclusions 206References 20612 Role And Strategies Of Surveillance Networks In Handling Emerging And Reemerging Viral Infections 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado12.1 Introduction 21412.2 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 21412.3 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 21512.4 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 21612.5 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 21712.6 New expansion of surveillance by the ihr-2005 21812.7 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 21812.8 Global influenza surveillance and who’s pandemic influenza preparedness framework 21912.9 Early warning surveillance systems 22012.10 Innovative approaches for surveillance 22212.11 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information reporting, sharing, and dissemination 22212.12 Real-time and near real-time information 22312.13 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious disease outbreaks 22312.14 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 22512.15 Incorporation of public–private partnerships in surveillance activities 22612.16 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 22612.17 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 22612.18 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers for monitoring, analysis, and response in surveillance efforts 22712.19 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228References 22913 Predictive Modeling Of Emerging Infections 233Anna L. Buczak, Steven M. Babin, Brian H. Feighner, Phillip T. Koshute, and Sheri H. Lewis13.1 Introduction 23313.2 Types of models 23413.3 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 23513.4 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 24113.5 Examples of prediction models 24413.6 Conclusion 250References 25014 Developments And Challenges In Diagnostic Virology 255Luisa Barzon, Laura Squarzon, Monia Pacenti, and Giorgio Palù14.1 Introduction 25614.2 Preparedness 25814.3 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 25914.4 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 26014.5 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 26815 Advances In Detecting And Responding To Threats From Bioterrorism And Emerging Viral Infections 275Stephen A. Morse and Angela Weber15.1 Introduction 27615.2 Emerging, reemerging, and intentionally emerging diseases 27615.3 Bioterrorism 27815.4 Viruses as bioweapons 27915.5 Impact of biotechnology 28215.6 Deterrence, recognition, and response 28415.7 Public health surveillance 28815.8 Conclusion 291References 29116 Molecular And Evolutionary Mechanisms Of Viral Emergence 297Juan Carlos Saiz, Francisco Sobrino, Noemí Sevilla, Verónica Martín, Celia Perales, and Esteban Domingo16.1 Introduction: Biosphere and virosphere diversities 29816.2 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence: a role of complexity 29916.3 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 30016.4 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in viral disease emergence 30216.5 Ample genetic and host range variations of fmdv: a human epidemic to be? 30416.6 The arbovirus host alternations: high exposure to environmental modifications 30716.7 Arenaviruses: As an emerging threat 31316.8 Conclusion 315Acknowledgement 316References 31617 Drivers Of Emergence And Sources Of Future Emerging And Reemerging Viral Infections 327Leslie A. Reperant and Albert D.M.E. Osterhaus17.1 Introduction 32817.2 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 32917.3 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334 17.4 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338 References 339 18 Spillover Transmission And Emergence Of Viral Outbreaks In Humans 343Sunit K. Singh 18.1 Introduction 343 18.2 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344 18.3 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347 18.4 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349 18.5 Conclusion 349 References 349 Part II Specific Infections 353 19 New, Emerging, And Reemerging Respiratory Viruses 355Fleur M. Moesker, Pieter L.A. Fraaij, and Albert D.M.E. Osterhaus 19.1 Introduction 35619.2 Influenza viruses 35919.3 Human metapneumovirus 36219.4 Human coronaviruses: SARS and non-SARS 36319.5 Human bocavirus 36619.6 KI and WU polyomaviruses 36719.7 Nipah and hendra viruses 36819.8 Conclusion 36919.9 List of abbreviations 369References 37020 Emergence Of Zoonotic Orthopox Virus Infections 377Tomoki Yoshikawa, Masayuki Saijo, and Shigeru Morikawa20.1 Smallpox, a representative orthopoxvirus infection: The eradicated non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 37720.2 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 379Acknowledgement 387References 38721 Biological Aspects Of The Interspecies Transmission Of Selected Coronavi ruses 393Anastasia N. Vlasova and Linda J. Saif21.1 Introduction 39321.2 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 39721.3 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 39921.4 Alpha-, beta- and gamma coronaviruses: cross-species transmission 40421.5 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity and outbreaks 40721.6 Conclusion 410References 41022 Impac t Of Environmental And Social Factors On Ross River Virus Outbreaks 419Craig R. Williams and David O. Harley22.1 Introduction 420 22.2 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis outbreaks in australia and the pacific 42022.3 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 42122.4 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 42222.5 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 42322.6 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 42322.7 Climate Change and RRV 42722.8 Conclusion 427Acknowledgement 428References 42823 Infection Patterns And Emergence Of O’nyong-Nyong Virus 433Ann M. Powers23.1 Introduction 43323.2 History of outbreaks 43423.3 Clinical manifestations 43523.4 Epidemiology 43523.5 Factors affecting emergence 43723.6 Conclusion 440References 44124 Zoonotic Hepa titis E: Animal Reservoirs, Emerging Risks, And Impact Of Climate Change 445Nicole Pavio and Jérôme Bouquet24.1 Introduction 44624.2 HEV biology and classification 44624.3 Pathogenesis in humans 44924.4 Animal Reservoirs 45124.5 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 45424.6 HEV in the environment 45624.7 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 45724.8 Prevention 45824.9 Conclusion 458Acknowledgement 459References 45925 Impact Of Climate Change On Outbreaks Of Arenaviral Infections 467James Christopher Clegg25.1 Introduction 46725.2 Natural history of arenaviruses 46825.3 Predicted climate changes 470 25.4 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471References 47326 Emerging And Reemerging Human Bunyavirus Infections And Climate Change 477Laura J. Sutherland, Assaf Anyamba, and A. Desiree LaBeaud26.1 Introduction 47826.2 Bunyaviridae family 47826.3 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae: Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 48226.4 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 48526.5 using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 48626.6 Future problems 489References 48927 Emerging Trend Of Astroviruses, Enteric Adenoviruses, And Rotavi ruses In Human ViralGastroenteritis 495Daniel Cowley, Celeste Donato, and Carl D. Kirkwood 27.1 Introduction 496 27.2 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 49727.3 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 50127.4 Emerging trends in astroviruses 50428 Emerging Human Norovirus Infections 517Melissa K. Jones, Shu Zhu, and Stephanie M. Karst28.1 Introduction 51728.2 Norovirus epidemiology 51828.3 Features of norovirus outbreaks 51928.4 Clinical features of norovirus infection 52128.5 Host Susceptibility 52228.6 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 52228.7 Effect of globalization of the food market on norovirus spread 52328.8 Effect of climate change 525References 52529 Emergence Of Novel Viruses (Toscana, Usutu) In Population And Climate Change 535Mari Paz Sánchez-Seco Fariñas and Ana Vazquez29.1 Introduction 53629.2 TOSV 53629.3 USUV 54229.4 Conclusions 55030 Borna Disease Virus And The Search For Human Infection 557Kathryn M. Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre 30.1 Introduction 55830.2 Long-standing controversy around bdv as a human pathogen 55930.3 A negative is impossible to prove, but do we have enough evidence to stop looking? 56030.4 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of bdv in human samples 56230.4.1 Serology 56230.4.2 Nucleic acid tests 56330.5 The possibilities for clinical expression of human bdv infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 56330.6 Epidemiology: the “new” frontier of human bdv studies? 56530.7 Where do we go from here? 566Acknowledgement 568References 56831 Tick-Transmitted Viruses And Climate Change 573Agustín Estrada-Peña, Zdenek Hubálek, and Ivo Rudolf31.1 Introduction 57431.2 Ticks in nature 57531.3 Family Flaviviridae 57631.4 Family Bunyaviridae 58331.5 Family Reoviridae 59031.5.1 Colorado tick fever virus 59031.5.2 Kemerovo virus 59031.5.3 Tribeè virus 59131.6 Family Orthomyxoviridae 59131.6.1 Thogoto virus 59131.6.2 Dhori virus 59231.7 Other tick-transmitted viruses 59231.8 Conclusions 592Acknowledgements 594References 59432 The Tick–Virus Interface 603Kristin L. McNally and Marshall E. Bloom32.1 Introduction 60432.2 Viruses within the tick vector 60532.3 Saliva-assisted transmission 60932.4 Summary and future directions 611Acknowledgements 612References 612Index 617

Dr. Sunit Kumar Singh is a Scientist & Project Leader in the Section of Infectious Diseases and Immunobiology, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad, India, Dr. Singh leads a research group in neurovirology, and his broad?areas of expertise?are in?neurovirology and neuroinflammation. Dr. Singh is a serving editorial board member for several journals in the field of infectious disease, including the PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases journal, and he has been the recipient of numerous awards including the Young Scientist Award, the Skinner Memorial Award and the AFS travel grant award.

“I learnt so much from the book and enjoyed reading it. It is definitely a welcome and timely addition to the biomedical literature.”  (Microbiology Today, 1 August 2014)“The healthcare professionals and scientists best equipped to prevent an actual viral apocalypse will have Viral Infections and Global Change at hand, rather than a machete. Or maybe both.”  (Clinical Infectious Diseases, 25 April  2014)

• Foreword xxiPreface xxiiiContributors xxvAbout the Editor xxixPart I General aspects 11 Climate Change And Vector-Borne Viral Diseases 3Ying Zhang, Alana Hansen, and Peng Bi1.1 Introduction 41.2 Epidemiology of VVD 41.3 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 61.4 Invasion of nonzoonotic vvd to humans 141.5 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14References 162 Impact Of Climate Change On Vector-Borne Arboviral Episystems 21Walter J. Tabachnick and Jonathan F. Day2.1 Introduction 222.2 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 242.3 West Nile virus 252.4 Dengue in Florida 282.5 Bluetongue 292.6 Conclusions 31Acknowledgement 32References 323 Influence Of Climate Change On Mosquito Development And Blood-Feeding Patterns 35William E. Walton and William K. Reisen3.1 Introduction 363.2 Mosquito development 373.3 Blood-feeding patterns 46References 524 Environmental Perturbations That Influence Arboviral Host Range: Insights Into Emergence Mechanisms 57Aaron C. Brault and William K. Reisen4.1 Introduction 574.2 The changing environment 594.3 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine encephalitis virus 624.4 Rice, mosquitoes, pigs, and japanese encephalitis virus 634.5 Culex pipiens complex, house sparrows, urbanization, and west Nile virus 664.6 Urbanization, global trade, and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 704.7 Conclusions 71References 715 The Socio-Ecology Of Viral Zoonotic Transfer 77Jonathan D. Mayer and Sarah Paige5.1 Introduction 785.2 Historical perspective 785.3 Human–animal interface 795.4 Surveillance 795.5 Deforestation and fragmentation 805.6 Urbanization 815.7 Examples 825.8 Conclusion 84References 846 Human Behavior And The Epidemiology Of Viral Zoonoses 87Satesh Bidaisee, Cheryl Cox Macpherson, and Calum N.L. Macpherson6.1 Introduction 886.2 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 896.3 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 926.4 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 936.5 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 966.6 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 986.7 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 1016.8 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103References 1047 Global Trave l, Trade, And The Spread Of Viral Infections 111Brian D. Gushulak and Douglas W. MacPherson7.1 Introduction 1127.2 Basic principles 1137.3 An overview of population mobility 1137.4 The dynamics of modern population mobility 1147.5 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 1157.6 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 1177.7 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 1197.8 Potential impact of climate change 1267.9 Conclusion 127References 1288 Effects Of Land-Use Changes And Agricultural Practices On The Emergence And Reemergence Of Human Viral Diseases 133Kimberly Fornace, Marco Liverani, Jonathan Rushton, and Richard Coker8.1 Introduction 1348.2 Ecological and environmental changes 1368.3 Agricultural change 1398.4 Demographic changes 1418.5 Land use, disease emergence, and multifactorial causation 1438.6 Conclusion 145References 1459 Animal Migration And Risk Of Spread Of Viral Infections 151Diann J. Prosser, Jessica Nagel, and John Y. Takekawa9.1 Introduction 1529.2 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread? 1529.3 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 1579.4 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 1669.5 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 1669.6 Combined effects of climate change, disease, and migration 1679.7 Conclusions and future directions 169Acknowledgements 170References 17010 Illegal Animal And (Bush) Meat Trade Associated Risk Of Spread Of Viral Infections 179Christopher Kilonzo, Thomas J. Stopka, and Bruno Chomel10.1 Introduction 18010.2 Search strategy and selection criteria 18010.3 The bushmeat trade 18110.4 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 18110.5 Risk factors and modes of transmission 18310.6 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 18410.7 Case study: The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution of Hiv 18510.8 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 18610.9 Discussion and future directions 18710.10 Prevention and control: From supply and demand to health education techniques 18710.11 New technologies 18810.12 Collaboration: Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 18910.13 Conclusion 190Conflicts of interest 190References 19011 Biological Significance Of Bats As A Natural Reservoir Of Emerging Viruses 195Angela M. Bosco-Lauth and Richard A. Bowen11.1 Introduction 19511.2 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 19611.3 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 19711.4 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 20311.5 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 20511.6 Conclusions 206References 20612 Role And Strategies Of Surveillance Networks In Handling Emerging And Reemerging Viral Infections 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado12.1 Introduction 21412.2 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 21412.3 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 21512.4 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 21612.5 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 21712.6 New expansion of surveillance by the ihr-2005 21812.7 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 21812.8 Global influenza surveillance and who’s pandemic influenza preparedness framework 21912.9 Early warning surveillance systems 22012.10 Innovative approaches for surveillance 22212.11 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information reporting, sharing, and dissemination 22212.12 Real-time and near real-time information 22312.13 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious disease outbreaks 22312.14 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 22512.15 Incorporation of public–private partnerships in surveillance activities 22612.16 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 22612.17 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 22612.18 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers for monitoring, analysis, and response in surveillance efforts 22712.19 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228References 22913 Predictive Modeling Of Emerging Infections 233Anna L. Buczak, Steven M. Babin, Brian H. Feighner, Phillip T. Koshute, and Sheri H. Lewis13.1 Introduction 23313.2 Types of models 23413.3 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 23513.4 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 24113.5 Examples of prediction models 24413.6 Conclusion 250References 25014 Developments And Challenges In Diagnostic Virology 255Luisa Barzon, Laura Squarzon, Monia Pacenti, and Giorgio Palù14.1 Introduction 25614.2 Preparedness 25814.3 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 25914.4 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 26014.5 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 26815 Advances In Detecting And Responding To Threats From Bioterrorism And Emerging Viral Infections 275Stephen A. Morse and Angela Weber15.1 Introduction 27615.2 Emerging, reemerging, and intentionally emerging diseases 27615.3 Bioterrorism 27815.4 Viruses as bioweapons 27915.5 Impact of biotechnology 28215.6 Deterrence, recognition, and response 28415.7 Public health surveillance 28815.8 Conclusion 291References 29116 Molecular And Evolutionary Mechanisms Of Viral Emergence 297Juan Carlos Saiz, Francisco Sobrino, Noemí Sevilla, Verónica Martín, Celia Perales, and Esteban Domingo16.1 Introduction: Biosphere and virosphere diversities 29816.2 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence: a role of complexity 29916.3 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 30016.4 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in viral disease emergence 30216.5 Ample genetic and host range variations of fmdv: a human epidemic to be? 30416.6 The arbovirus host alternations: high exposure to environmental modifications 30716.7 Arenaviruses: As an emerging threat 31316.8 Conclusion 315Acknowledgement 316References 31617 Drivers Of Emergence And Sources Of Future Emerging And Reemerging Viral Infections 327Leslie A. Reperant and Albert D.M.E. Osterhaus17.1 Introduction 32817.2 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 32917.3 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334 17.4 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338 References 339 18 Spillover Transmission And Emergence Of Viral Outbreaks In Humans 343Sunit K. Singh 18.1 Introduction 343 18.2 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344 18.3 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347 18.4 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349 18.5 Conclusion 349 References 349 Part II Specific Infections 353 19 New, Emerging, And Reemerging Respiratory Viruses 355Fleur M. Moesker, Pieter L.A. Fraaij, and Albert D.M.E. Osterhaus 19.1 Introduction 35619.2 Influenza viruses 35919.3 Human metapneumovirus 36219.4 Human coronaviruses: SARS and non-SARS 36319.5 Human bocavirus 36619.6 KI and WU polyomaviruses 36719.7 Nipah and hendra viruses 36819.8 Conclusion 36919.9 List of abbreviations 369References 37020 Emergence Of Zoonotic Orthopox Virus Infections 377Tomoki Yoshikawa, Masayuki Saijo, and Shigeru Morikawa20.1 Smallpox, a representative orthopoxvirus infection: The eradicated non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 37720.2 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 379Acknowledgement 387References 38721 Biological Aspects Of The Interspecies Transmission Of Selected Coronavi ruses 393Anastasia N. Vlasova and Linda J. Saif21.1 Introduction 39321.2 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 39721.3 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 39921.4 Alpha-, beta- and gamma coronaviruses: cross-species transmission 40421.5 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity and outbreaks 40721.6 Conclusion 410References 41022 Impac t Of Environmental And Social Factors On Ross River Virus Outbreaks 419Craig R. Williams and David O. Harley22.1 Introduction 420 22.2 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis outbreaks in australia and the pacific 42022.3 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 42122.4 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 42222.5 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 42322.6 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 42322.7 Climate Change and RRV 42722.8 Conclusion 427Acknowledgement 428References 42823 Infection Patterns And Emergence Of O’nyong-Nyong Virus 433Ann M. Powers23.1 Introduction 43323.2 History of outbreaks 43423.3 Clinical manifestations 43523.4 Epidemiology 43523.5 Factors affecting emergence 43723.6 Conclusion 440References 44124 Zoonotic Hepa titis E: Animal Reservoirs, Emerging Risks, And Impact Of Climate Change 445Nicole Pavio and Jérôme Bouquet24.1 Introduction 44624.2 HEV biology and classification 44624.3 Pathogenesis in humans 44924.4 Animal Reservoirs 45124.5 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 45424.6 HEV in the environment 45624.7 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 45724.8 Prevention 45824.9 Conclusion 458Acknowledgement 459References 45925 Impact Of Climate Change On Outbreaks Of Arenaviral Infections 467James Christopher Clegg25.1 Introduction 46725.2 Natural history of arenaviruses 46825.3 Predicted climate changes 470 25.4 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471References 47326 Emerging And Reemerging Human Bunyavirus Infections And Climate Change 477Laura J. Sutherland, Assaf Anyamba, and A. Desiree LaBeaud26.1 Introduction 47826.2 Bunyaviridae family 47826.3 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae: Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 48226.4 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 48526.5 using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 48626.6 Future problems 489References 48927 Emerging Trend Of Astroviruses, Enteric Adenoviruses, And Rotavi ruses In Human ViralGastroenteritis 495Daniel Cowley, Celeste Donato, and Carl D. Kirkwood 27.1 Introduction 496 27.2 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 49727.3 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 50127.4 Emerging trends in astroviruses 50428 Emerging Human Norovirus Infections 517Melissa K. Jones, Shu Zhu, and Stephanie M. Karst28.1 Introduction 51728.2 Norovirus epidemiology 51828.3 Features of norovirus outbreaks 51928.4 Clinical features of norovirus infection 52128.5 Host Susceptibility 52228.6 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 52228.7 Effect of globalization of the food market on norovirus spread 52328.8 Effect of climate change 525References 52529 Emergence Of Novel Viruses (Toscana, Usutu) In Population And Climate Change 535Mari Paz Sánchez-Seco Fariñas and Ana Vazquez29.1 Introduction 53629.2 TOSV 53629.3 USUV 54229.4 Conclusions 55030 Borna Disease Virus And The Search For Human Infection 557Kathryn M. Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre 30.1 Introduction 55830.2 Long-standing controversy around bdv as a human pathogen 55930.3 A negative is impossible to prove, but do we have enough evidence to stop looking? 56030.4 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of bdv in human samples 56230.4.1 Serology 56230.4.2 Nucleic acid tests 56330.5 The possibilities for clinical expression of human bdv infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 56330.6 Epidemiology: the “new” frontier of human bdv studies? 56530.7 Where do we go from here? 566Acknowledgement 568References 56831 Tick-Transmitted Viruses And Climate Change 573Agustín Estrada-Peña, Zdenek Hubálek, and Ivo Rudolf31.1 Introduction 57431.2 Ticks in nature 57531.3 Family Flaviviridae 57631.4 Family Bunyaviridae 58331.5 Family Reoviridae 59031.5.1 Colorado tick fever virus 59031.5.2 Kemerovo virus 59031.5.3 Tribeè virus 59131.6 Family Orthomyxoviridae 59131.6.1 Thogoto virus 59131.6.2 Dhori virus 59231.7 Other tick-transmitted viruses 59231.8 Conclusions 592Acknowledgements 594References 59432 The Tick–Virus Interface 603Kristin L. McNally and Marshall E. Bloom32.1 Introduction 60432.2 Viruses within the tick vector 60532.3 Saliva-assisted transmission 60932.4 Summary and future directions 611Acknowledgements 612References 612Index 617

Dr. Sunit Kumar Singh is a Scientist & Project Leader in the Section of Infectious Diseases and Immunobiology, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad, India, Dr. Singh leads a research group in neurovirology, and his broad?areas of expertise?are in?neurovirology and neuroinflammation. Dr. Singh is a serving editorial board member for several journals in the field of infectious disease, including the PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases journal, and he has been the recipient of numerous awards including the Young Scientist Award, the Skinner Memorial Award and the AFS travel grant award.

“I learnt so much from the book and enjoyed reading it. It is definitely a welcome and timely addition to the biomedical literature.”  (Microbiology Today, 1 August 2014)“The healthcare professionals and scientists best equipped to prevent an actual viral apocalypse will have Viral Infections and Global Change at hand, rather than a machete. Or maybe both.”  (Clinical Infectious Diseases, 25 April  2014)

• Foreword xxiPreface xxiiiContributors xxvAbout the Editor xxixPart I General aspects 11 Climate Change And Vector-Borne Viral Diseases 3Ying Zhang, Alana Hansen, and Peng Bi1.1 Introduction 41.2 Epidemiology of VVD 41.3 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 61.4 Invasion of nonzoonotic vvd to humans 141.5 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14References 162 Impact Of Climate Change On Vector-Borne Arboviral Episystems 21Walter J. Tabachnick and Jonathan F. Day2.1 Introduction 222.2 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 242.3 West Nile virus 252.4 Dengue in Florida 282.5 Bluetongue 292.6 Conclusions 31Acknowledgement 32References 323 Influence Of Climate Change On Mosquito Development And Blood-Feeding Patterns 35William E. Walton and William K. Reisen3.1 Introduction 363.2 Mosquito development 373.3 Blood-feeding patterns 46References 524 Environmental Perturbations That Influence Arboviral Host Range: Insights Into Emergence Mechanisms 57Aaron C. Brault and William K. Reisen4.1 Introduction 574.2 The changing environment 594.3 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine encephalitis virus 624.4 Rice, mosquitoes, pigs, and japanese encephalitis virus 634.5 Culex pipiens complex, house sparrows, urbanization, and west Nile virus 664.6 Urbanization, global trade, and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 704.7 Conclusions 71References 715 The Socio-Ecology Of Viral Zoonotic Transfer 77Jonathan D. Mayer and Sarah Paige5.1 Introduction 785.2 Historical perspective 785.3 Human–animal interface 795.4 Surveillance 795.5 Deforestation and fragmentation 805.6 Urbanization 815.7 Examples 825.8 Conclusion 84References 846 Human Behavior And The Epidemiology Of Viral Zoonoses 87Satesh Bidaisee, Cheryl Cox Macpherson, and Calum N.L. Macpherson6.1 Introduction 886.2 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 896.3 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 926.4 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 936.5 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 966.6 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 986.7 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 1016.8 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103References 1047 Global Trave l, Trade, And The Spread Of Viral Infections 111Brian D. Gushulak and Douglas W. MacPherson7.1 Introduction 1127.2 Basic principles 1137.3 An overview of population mobility 1137.4 The dynamics of modern population mobility 1147.5 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 1157.6 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 1177.7 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 1197.8 Potential impact of climate change 1267.9 Conclusion 127References 1288 Effects Of Land-Use Changes And Agricultural Practices On The Emergence And Reemergence Of Human Viral Diseases 133Kimberly Fornace, Marco Liverani, Jonathan Rushton, and Richard Coker8.1 Introduction 1348.2 Ecological and environmental changes 1368.3 Agricultural change 1398.4 Demographic changes 1418.5 Land use, disease emergence, and multifactorial causation 1438.6 Conclusion 145References 1459 Animal Migration And Risk Of Spread Of Viral Infections 151Diann J. Prosser, Jessica Nagel, and John Y. Takekawa9.1 Introduction 1529.2 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread? 1529.3 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 1579.4 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 1669.5 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 1669.6 Combined effects of climate change, disease, and migration 1679.7 Conclusions and future directions 169Acknowledgements 170References 17010 Illegal Animal And (Bush) Meat Trade Associated Risk Of Spread Of Viral Infections 179Christopher Kilonzo, Thomas J. Stopka, and Bruno Chomel10.1 Introduction 18010.2 Search strategy and selection criteria 18010.3 The bushmeat trade 18110.4 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 18110.5 Risk factors and modes of transmission 18310.6 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 18410.7 Case study: The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution of Hiv 18510.8 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 18610.9 Discussion and future directions 18710.10 Prevention and control: From supply and demand to health education techniques 18710.11 New technologies 18810.12 Collaboration: Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 18910.13 Conclusion 190Conflicts of interest 190References 19011 Biological Significance Of Bats As A Natural Reservoir Of Emerging Viruses 195Angela M. Bosco-Lauth and Richard A. Bowen11.1 Introduction 19511.2 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 19611.3 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 19711.4 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 20311.5 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 20511.6 Conclusions 206References 20612 Role And Strategies Of Surveillance Networks In Handling Emerging And Reemerging Viral Infections 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado12.1 Introduction 21412.2 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 21412.3 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 21512.4 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 21612.5 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 21712.6 New expansion of surveillance by the ihr-2005 21812.7 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 21812.8 Global influenza surveillance and who’s pandemic influenza preparedness framework 21912.9 Early warning surveillance systems 22012.10 Innovative approaches for surveillance 22212.11 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information reporting, sharing, and dissemination 22212.12 Real-time and near real-time information 22312.13 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious disease outbreaks 22312.14 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 22512.15 Incorporation of public–private partnerships in surveillance activities 22612.16 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 22612.17 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 22612.18 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers for monitoring, analysis, and response in surveillance efforts 22712.19 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228References 22913 Predictive Modeling Of Emerging Infections 233Anna L. Buczak, Steven M. Babin, Brian H. Feighner, Phillip T. Koshute, and Sheri H. Lewis13.1 Introduction 23313.2 Types of models 23413.3 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 23513.4 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 24113.5 Examples of prediction models 24413.6 Conclusion 250References 25014 Developments And Challenges In Diagnostic Virology 255Luisa Barzon, Laura Squarzon, Monia Pacenti, and Giorgio Palù14.1 Introduction 25614.2 Preparedness 25814.3 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 25914.4 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 26014.5 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 26815 Advances In Detecting And Responding To Threats From Bioterrorism And Emerging Viral Infections 275Stephen A. Morse and Angela Weber15.1 Introduction 27615.2 Emerging, reemerging, and intentionally emerging diseases 27615.3 Bioterrorism 27815.4 Viruses as bioweapons 27915.5 Impact of biotechnology 28215.6 Deterrence, recognition, and response 28415.7 Public health surveillance 28815.8 Conclusion 291References 29116 Molecular And Evolutionary Mechanisms Of Viral Emergence 297Juan Carlos Saiz, Francisco Sobrino, Noemí Sevilla, Verónica Martín, Celia Perales, and Esteban Domingo16.1 Introduction: Biosphere and virosphere diversities 29816.2 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence: a role of complexity 29916.3 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 30016.4 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in viral disease emergence 30216.5 Ample genetic and host range variations of fmdv: a human epidemic to be? 30416.6 The arbovirus host alternations: high exposure to environmental modifications 30716.7 Arenaviruses: As an emerging threat 31316.8 Conclusion 315Acknowledgement 316References 31617 Drivers Of Emergence And Sources Of Future Emerging And Reemerging Viral Infections 327Leslie A. Reperant and Albert D.M.E. Osterhaus17.1 Introduction 32817.2 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 32917.3 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334 17.4 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338 References 339 18 Spillover Transmission And Emergence Of Viral Outbreaks In Humans 343Sunit K. Singh 18.1 Introduction 343 18.2 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344 18.3 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347 18.4 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349 18.5 Conclusion 349 References 349 Part II Specific Infections 353 19 New, Emerging, And Reemerging Respiratory Viruses 355Fleur M. Moesker, Pieter L.A. Fraaij, and Albert D.M.E. Osterhaus 19.1 Introduction 35619.2 Influenza viruses 35919.3 Human metapneumovirus 36219.4 Human coronaviruses: SARS and non-SARS 36319.5 Human bocavirus 36619.6 KI and WU polyomaviruses 36719.7 Nipah and hendra viruses 36819.8 Conclusion 36919.9 List of abbreviations 369References 37020 Emergence Of Zoonotic Orthopox Virus Infections 377Tomoki Yoshikawa, Masayuki Saijo, and Shigeru Morikawa20.1 Smallpox, a representative orthopoxvirus infection: The eradicated non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 37720.2 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 379Acknowledgement 387References 38721 Biological Aspects Of The Interspecies Transmission Of Selected Coronavi ruses 393Anastasia N. Vlasova and Linda J. Saif21.1 Introduction 39321.2 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 39721.3 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 39921.4 Alpha-, beta- and gamma coronaviruses: cross-species transmission 40421.5 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity and outbreaks 40721.6 Conclusion 410References 41022 Impac t Of Environmental And Social Factors On Ross River Virus Outbreaks 419Craig R. Williams and David O. Harley22.1 Introduction 420 22.2 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis outbreaks in australia and the pacific 42022.3 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 42122.4 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 42222.5 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 42322.6 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 42322.7 Climate Change and RRV 42722.8 Conclusion 427Acknowledgement 428References 42823 Infection Patterns And Emergence Of O’nyong-Nyong Virus 433Ann M. Powers23.1 Introduction 43323.2 History of outbreaks 43423.3 Clinical manifestations 43523.4 Epidemiology 43523.5 Factors affecting emergence 43723.6 Conclusion 440References 44124 Zoonotic Hepa titis E: Animal Reservoirs, Emerging Risks, And Impact Of Climate Change 445Nicole Pavio and Jérôme Bouquet24.1 Introduction 44624.2 HEV biology and classification 44624.3 Pathogenesis in humans 44924.4 Animal Reservoirs 45124.5 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 45424.6 HEV in the environment 45624.7 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 45724.8 Prevention 45824.9 Conclusion 458Acknowledgement 459References 45925 Impact Of Climate Change On Outbreaks Of Arenaviral Infections 467James Christopher Clegg25.1 Introduction 46725.2 Natural history of arenaviruses 46825.3 Predicted climate changes 470 25.4 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471References 47326 Emerging And Reemerging Human Bunyavirus Infections And Climate Change 477Laura J. Sutherland, Assaf Anyamba, and A. Desiree LaBeaud26.1 Introduction 47826.2 Bunyaviridae family 47826.3 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae: Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 48226.4 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 48526.5 using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 48626.6 Future problems 489References 48927 Emerging Trend Of Astroviruses, Enteric Adenoviruses, And Rotavi ruses In Human ViralGastroenteritis 495Daniel Cowley, Celeste Donato, and Carl D. Kirkwood 27.1 Introduction 496 27.2 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 49727.3 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 50127.4 Emerging trends in astroviruses 50428 Emerging Human Norovirus Infections 517Melissa K. Jones, Shu Zhu, and Stephanie M. Karst28.1 Introduction 51728.2 Norovirus epidemiology 51828.3 Features of norovirus outbreaks 51928.4 Clinical features of norovirus infection 52128.5 Host Susceptibility 52228.6 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 52228.7 Effect of globalization of the food market on norovirus spread 52328.8 Effect of climate change 525References 52529 Emergence Of Novel Viruses (Toscana, Usutu) In Population And Climate Change 535Mari Paz Sánchez-Seco Fariñas and Ana Vazquez29.1 Introduction 53629.2 TOSV 53629.3 USUV 54229.4 Conclusions 55030 Borna Disease Virus And The Search For Human Infection 557Kathryn M. Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre 30.1 Introduction 55830.2 Long-standing controversy around bdv as a human pathogen 55930.3 A negative is impossible to prove, but do we have enough evidence to stop looking? 56030.4 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of bdv in human samples 56230.4.1 Serology 56230.4.2 Nucleic acid tests 56330.5 The possibilities for clinical expression of human bdv infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 56330.6 Epidemiology: the “new” frontier of human bdv studies? 56530.7 Where do we go from here? 566Acknowledgement 568References 56831 Tick-Transmitted Viruses And Climate Change 573Agustín Estrada-Peña, Zdenek Hubálek, and Ivo Rudolf31.1 Introduction 57431.2 Ticks in nature 57531.3 Family Flaviviridae 57631.4 Family Bunyaviridae 58331.5 Family Reoviridae 59031.5.1 Colorado tick fever virus 59031.5.2 Kemerovo virus 59031.5.3 Tribeè virus 59131.6 Family Orthomyxoviridae 59131.6.1 Thogoto virus 59131.6.2 Dhori virus 59231.7 Other tick-transmitted viruses 59231.8 Conclusions 592Acknowledgements 594References 59432 The Tick–Virus Interface 603Kristin L. McNally and Marshall E. Bloom32.1 Introduction 60432.2 Viruses within the tick vector 60532.3 Saliva-assisted transmission 60932.4 Summary and future directions 611Acknowledgements 612References 612Index 617