Harmful Algal Blooms

Sandra E. Shumway, University of Connecticut, Groton, CT, USA.JoAnn M. Burkholder, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.Steven L. Morton, NOAA National Ocean Service, Charleston, SC, USA.

• List of Contributors xviiAcknowledgments xxiIntroduction xxiii1 Causes of Harmful Algal Blooms 1Patricia M. Glibert and JoAnn M. Burkholder1.1 Introduction 11.2 “Getting There”: The Classic Perspective on Introduced Species and Links to Cultural Eutrophication 21.2.1 Introduced Species 21.2.2 Anthropogenically Introduced Nutrients 31.3 “Being There”: Blooms and Why They Succeed 51.3.1 Nutrient-Related HAB 51.3.2 Resource Ratios, Nutrient Stoichiometry, and Optimal Nutrient Ratios 61.3.3 Diversity in Use of Forms of Nitrogen 91.3.4 Toxicity 101.3.5 Mixotrophy: Use of “Packaged” and Dissolved Particulate Nutrients 121.3.6 Other Adaptations 131.4 “Staying There”: Links to Physical Structure and Climate 141.4.1 Physical Structure: Large-Scale and Small-Scale Natural Hydrological Features 141.4.2 Physical Dynamics: Anthropogenic Hydrological Changes 151.4.3 Reinforcing Feedbacks 161.4.3.1 Trophic Disruptions 161.4.3.2 Biogeochemical Alterations 171.4.4 Climate Change 181.5 Conclusions 20Acknowledgments 21References 212 Detection and Surveillance of Harmful Algal Bloom Species and Toxins 39Gregory J. Doucette, Linda K. Medlin, Pearse McCarron, and Philipp Hess2.1 Introduction 392.2 Organism Detection 412.2.1 Visual/Optical 412.2.1.1 Light Microscopy (LM)/Utermöhl’s 412.2.1.2 Light Microscopy/Flow Cytometry 412.2.1.3 In Vivo Fluorometry 422.2.1.4 Spectral Absorbance/Spectroradiometry 432.2.2 Molecular 432.2.2.1 Whole Cell Format 442.2.2.2 Cell-Free Format 472.3 Toxin Detection 512.3.1 In Vivo Assays 532.3.1.1 Rat Bioassay 582.3.1.2 Mouse Bioassay 582.3.2 In Vitro Assays 592.3.2.1 Functional Assays 602.3.2.2 Structural Assays 662.3.2.3 Biosensors 712.3.3 Analytical Techniques 722.3.3.1 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Optical Detection (UV or FLD) 732.3.3.2 Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) and Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) 752.3.3.3 Other Analytical Methods: Capillary Electrophoresis (CE), Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight (MALDI-TOF), and Laser Ablation Electrospray Ionization (LAESI) 782.3.3.4 Perspectives 792.4 Autonomous, In Situ Technologies 802.4.1 Environmental Sample Processor (McLane Research Laboratories) 812.4.2 Imaging Flow Cytobot (McLane Research Laboratories) 832.4.3 Optical Phytoplankton Discriminator (aka BreveBuster; Mote Marine Laboratory) 842.4.4 CytoBuoy (CytoBuoy b.v.) 852.4.5 SPATT Passive Samplers 862.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 87Disclaimer 89References and Further Reading 893 Modeling Marine Harmful Algal Blooms: Current Status and Future Prospects 115Kevin J. Flynn and Dennis J. McGillicuddy, Jr.3.1 Introduction 1153.2 Building Models to Describe Ecological Events 1173.3 Limitations to What Models Can Do, and Why 1193.3.1 Building Models 1193.3.2 Model Complexity 1193.3.3 The Need for Data 1203.3.4 Validating Models 1213.4 Modeling T-HAB and ED-HAB Events 1213.5 How Good Are Current HAB Models? 1223.6 Future Modeling of T-HAB and ED-HAB: Managing Expectations 1283.7 Improving Our Capabilities 1293.7.1 Changes in the Biological–Modeling Interface 129Acknowledgments 130References 1304 Harmful Algal Blooms and Shellfish 135Leila Basti, Hélène Hégaret, and Sandra E. Shumway4.1 Introduction 1354.2 Major Shellfish Poisonings 1364.2.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) 1364.2.2 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) 1374.2.3 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) 1384.2.4 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) 1394.2.5 Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP) 1394.3 Other Toxins: Pectenotoxins (PTX) and Yessotoxins (YTX) 1404.4 Emerging Shellfish Poisonings 1414.5 Toxin Uptake, Accumulation, and Depuration 1424.6 Shellfish Contamination in North America 1434.6.1 Bivalves 1434.6.1.1 Paralytic Shellfish Contamination 1434.6.1.2 Diarrheic Shellfish Contamination 1494.6.1.3 Neurotoxic Shellfish Contamination 1504.6.1.4 Amnesic Shellfish Contamination 1514.6.2 Gastropods 1544.6.3 Crustaceans 1624.7 Impacts on Shellfish 1634.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 164References and Further Reading 1675 Vulnerabilities of Marine Mammals to Harmful Algal Blooms 191Margaret H. Broadwater, Frances M. Van Dolah, and Spencer E. Fire5.1 Introduction 1915.2 Overview of Algal Toxins 1925.2.1 Brevetoxins 1935.2.2 Ciguatoxins 1995.2.3 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins 2005.2.4 Domoic Acid 2015.2.5 Paralytic Shellfish Toxins 2065.2.6 Other Algal and Cyanobacterial Toxins 2095.3 Impacts of Algal Toxins Specific to Marine Mammals 2105.3.1 The Effects of Toxin Exposure Depend on Animal Physiology and Behavior 2105.3.2 Emerging Issues: Non-acute and Multiple Toxin Exposure 2115.3.3 Prospects for Managing Impacts of HAB 2115.4 Considerations for the Evaluation of HAB Toxins in Marine Mammals 2125.4.1 Sampling Marine Mammals for HAB Toxin Analysis 2135.4.2 Priority Needs for Investigating HAB Toxin Involvement in Marine Mammal Morbidity and Mortality 214Abbreviations 214References and Further Reading 2156 Interactions between Seabirds and Harmful Algal Blooms 223Corinne M. Gibble and Brian A. Hoover6.1 Introduction 2236.2 Historical Interactions between HAB and Seabirds 2246.2.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) 2246.2.2 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) 2276.2.3 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning 2286.2.4 Akashiwo sanguinea 2286.2.5 Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) 2296.2.6 CyanoHAB 2306.3 Improved Monitoring and Establishment of Causality 2316.3.1 Coordinating Monitoring and Pathology to Confirm Relationships between HAB and Seabird Mortality 2316.3.2 Seabirds as Biological Indicators 2336.4 Implications for Conservation 234References 2357 Food Web and Ecosystem Impacts of Harmful Algae 243JoAnn M. Burkholder, Sandra E. Shumway, and Patricia M. Glibert7.1 Introduction 2437.2 Approaches, Pitfalls, Progress, and Goals 2777.3 High-Biomass Algal Blooms 2797.4 Emerging Recognition of the Roles of Allelochemicals 2827.4.1 Microalgae 2837.4.2 Thalloid Macroalgae 2857.4.3 Filamentous Mat-Forming Macroalgae 2877.5 Toxigenic Algae in Aquatic Food Webs 2877.5.1 Toxic Microcystis aeruginosa Blooms across North America 2897.5.2 Toxic Prymnesium parvum Blooms and Fish Communities in Two Texas Rivers 2907.5.3 Toxic Pseudo-nitzschia Blooms in Coastal Upwelling Areas 2927.5.4 Toxic Alexandrium Blooms in the Northeast 2927.5.5 Toxic Karenia brevis Blooms along the Florida Coast 2937.6 Ecosystem-Disruptive Algal Blooms 2947.7 Future Directions 295Appendix A: Scientific Names for Organisms Listed by Common Name in This Chapter, Also Indicating Species Affected by Karenia brevis (Kb) 297References and Further Reading 3018 Assessing the Economic Consequences of Harmful Algal Blooms: A Summary of Existing Literature, Research Methods, Data, and Information Gaps 337Charles M. Adams, Sherry L. Larkin, Porter Hoagland, and Brian Sancewich8.1 Introduction 3378.2 Overview 3388.3 Research Methodologies 3388.4 Sources and Types of Data 3478.5 Spatial and Temporal Scopes 3488.6 Nature of the Hazard 3498.7 Current Research Gaps 3508.8 Conclusion 351Acknowledgments 351References and Further Reading 3519 Public Health and Epidemiology 355Lynn M. Grattan, Joe Schumacker, Andrew Reich, and Sailor Holobaugh9.1 Introduction 3559.2 What Is Public Health and Epidemiology? 3559.3 HAB and Human Illness 3569.3.1 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) 3579.3.1.1 Exposure 3579.3.1.2 Clinical Symptoms 3619.3.1.3 Treatment 3619.3.2 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) 3619.3.2.1 Exposure 3619.3.2.2 Clinical Syndrome 3619.3.2.3 Treatment 3629.3.3 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) 3629.3.3.1 Exposure 3629.3.3.2 Clinical Illness 3639.3.3.3 Treatment 3639.3.4 Brevetoxin Inhalation Syndrome (BIS) 3639.3.4.1 Exposure 3639.3.4.2 Clinical Illness 3639.3.4.3 Treatment 3639.3.5 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) 3639.3.5.1 Exposure 3639.3.5.2 Clinical Syndrome 3649.3.5.3 Treatment 3649.3.6 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) 3649.3.6.1 Exposure 3649.3.6.2 Clinical Illness 3649.3.6.3 Treatment 3659.3.7 Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning (AZP) 3659.3.7.1 Exposure 3659.3.7.2 Clinical Syndrome 3669.3.7.3 Treatment 3669.3.8 Toxic Cyanobacteria 3669.3.8.1 Exposure 3669.3.8.2 Clinical Syndromes 3669.3.8.3 Treatment 3669.4 The HAB Manager’s Role in Preventing HAB-Related Illnesses 3679.4.1 HAB Management Exemplars 3679.4.2 The Native American Perspective from Washington State, USA: Domoic Acid and Paralytic Shellfish Toxins 3679.4.2.1 Background 3679.4.2.2 Tribal Capacity and Inclusion 3699.4.2.3 Lessons Learned 3699.4.3 The Florida Department of Health Perspective 3699.4.3.1 Harmful Algal Blooms 3709.5 HAB-Related Stressors and Human Resilience 3709.6 Conclusion 371References and Further Reading 37110 Marine Biotoxin and Harmful Algae Monitoring and Management 377Gregg W. Langlois and Steve L. Morton10.1 Introduction 37710.2 Identifying Sampling Program Needs 38310.3 Developing a Sampling Program for Shellfish Monitoring 38410.3.1 Shellfish Sampling Stations 38410.3.2 Monitoring Shellfish Toxicity 38610.4 Developing a Sampling Program for Phytoplankton Monitoring 38810.4.1 Phytoplankton Sampling Stations 38810.4.2 Monitoring Phytoplankton 38910.5 Monitoring Other Fisheries 39410.6 Novel Approaches and Advanced Tools to Enhance Monitoring Programs 39610.6.1 Diversifying Program Participation: Volunteer Monitors 39610.6.2 Field Testing for Toxins: PSP and ASP 39910.6.3 Screening Tests for Toxins: DSP and PSP 40110.6.4 SPATT 40110.6.5 Oceanographic Data 40210.7 Management Considerations 40810.7.1 Commercial Shellfish 40810.7.2 Recreational Shellfishing 41110.8 Phytoplankton Sampling Protocol Examples 41310.9 HAB Forecasting Links 413Acknowledgments 413References and Further Reading 41311 Harmful Algal Bloom Education and Outreach 419Mare Timmons, Mary Sweeney-Reeves, and Steve L. Morton11.1 Introduction 41911.2 K–12 Education 42611.3 Web-Based and Distance Learning Education 42711.4 Citizen Science 42811.4.1 Contributions of Citizen Science 42911.4.2 Connecting Citizen Science to Ocean Learning 43111.4.2.1 Safety 43111.4.2.2 Training Sessions 43111.5 Conclusion 432References and Further Reading 43212 Prevention, Control, and Mitigation of Harmful Algal Bloom Impacts on Fish, Shellfish, and Human Consumers 435Kevin G. Sellner and J.E. (Jack) Rensel12.1 Introduction 43512.2 HAB Prevention 43512.2.1 Aquaculture Site Selection or Relocation 43512.2.2 Nutrient Load Reductions 43612.2.3 Phytoplankton Mixing, Increasing Turbulence, and Decreasing Residence Times (Mostly Freshwater Systems) 44012.2.4 Reducing HA Introductions 44112.3 Preventing and Reducing HAB Impacts on Shellfish and Fish 44212.3.1 Preventing Human and Animal Exposures 44212.3.1.1 Shellfish and Finfish Monitoring 44212.3.1.2 Depuration and Detoxification 44412.3.1.3 Food Processing 44412.3.1.4 Cooking 44512.3.1.5 Aerosols 44512.3.1.6 Medical Treatments 44512.4 HAB Controls 44512.4.1 Protections 44512.4.2 Biomass Removal 44612.4.3 Capping 44612.4.4 Nutrient Trapping in Sediments 44612.4.5 Reductions of Algal Resting Stages (Cysts) 44612.5 Mitigation of HAB 44712.5.1 Detection 44712.5.2 Chemical Additions 44812.5.3 Flocculation 45112.5.4 Barely Straw (Hordeum vulgare) 45412.5.5 Other Treatments 45512.5.5.1 UV Exposure 45512.5.5.2 Cavitation 45512.5.5.3 Ultrasound 45512.5.5.4 Electrolysis 45612.5.5.5 Hydraulics and Mixing 45612.5.5.6 Biological Controls 45612.6 Shellfish 45812.7 Fish Mariculture 45912.7.1 HAB Mitigation for Fish Mariculture 45912.7.2 Best Management Practices for Fish Mariculture Siting, Including HAB and Eutrophication Issues 46012.7.2.1 Local Land Use 46012.7.2.2 Plankton Monitoring and Water Quality Assessments 46012.7.2.3 Physical Hydrographic Considerations 46112.7.2.4 Vertical Mixing Considerations 46112.7.3 Mitigation of HAB at Fish Mariculture Facilities 46112.7.4 HAB Mitigation Methods for Fish Mariculture 46212.7.4.1 Feeding and Handling Practices 46212.8 Conclusions 470Acknowledgments 474References 474Further Reading 49213 Harmful Algae Introductions: Vectors of Transfer, Mitigation, and Management 493Shauna Murray and Gustaaf Hallegraeff13.1 Summary 49313.2 The Biogeographic Ranges of Harmful Algal Bloom Species 49313.3 Vectors of Transfer 49413.3.1 Natural Factors 49413.3.2 Ballast Water 49413.3.3 Translocation of Aquaculture Products 49413.4 Molecular Evidence for Introductions of New Species to a Region 49413.4.1 The Stalk-Forming Freshwater Fouling Diatom Didymosphenia geminata 49513.4.2 Alexandrium pacificum and A. minutum in European and Japanese Waters 49613.4.3 Gymnodinium catenatum in Australia and Europe 49713.5 Prevention and Risk Reduction 49813.5.1 Code of Practice on Translocation with Aquaculture Products 49813.5.2 Warning for HAB in Ballast Water-Uptake Zones and When Translocating Aquaculture Products 49813.5.3 Ballast Water Management 49813.5.4 Other Precautionary Measures 50013.6 Emergency Treatment Options 501References 50214 Culture and Culture Collections 507Gary H. Wikfors and Steve L. Morton14.1 Introduction 50714.2 Step 1: Sampling the Environment 50714.3 Step 2: Processing a Field Sample in the Laboratory to Confirm Presence of the Target Organism 50914.4 Step 3: From Spark to Flame 51114.5 Step 4: Long-Term Perpetuation of HAB Cultures 51114.6 Epilogue 512Further Reading 51315 Harmful Macroalgal Blooms in a Changing World: Causes, Impacts, and Management 515Brian E. Lapointe, JoAnn M. Burkholder, and Kathryn L. Van Alstyne15.1 Introduction 51515.2 Freshwater and Other Inland Macroalgae 51615.3 Estuarine and Coastal Marine Macroalgae 51915.4 Influences on Bloom Development 52515.5 Nutrient Pollution 52515.5.1 Sources 52515.5.2 Indicators of Nutrient Pollution and Nutrient Sources 52615.6 Uptake/Adsorption of Other Contaminants 52615.7 Impacts on Human Health: Macroalgae as Substrata for Pathogens 52715.8 Non-native Invasions 52815.9 Ecological and Ecosystem-Level Impacts 52915.9.1 Regime Shifts 53015.9.2 Freshwater Macroalgal HAB 53215.9.2.1 Filamentous Cyanobacteria 53215.9.2.2 Filamentous Green Algae 53315.9.3 Estuarine and Coastal Marine HAB 53415.10 Effects of Blooms on the Chemistry of the Oceans and the Atmosphere 53515.10.1 Changes to Carbonate Chemistry and pH 53515.10.2 Release of Materials and Chemicals into Seawater 53615.10.3 Release of Volatile Compounds 53715.11 Management Strategies 53715.12 Economic Impacts 53915.13 Recycling Macroalgae Biomass 54115.14 Forecast 542References and Further Reading 54216 Harmful Algal Species Fact Sheets 561Alexandrium 563Allan D. CembellaAmphidomataceae 575Urban TillmannAureococcus anophagefferens Hargraves et Sieburth & Aureoumbra lagunensis DeYoe et Stockwell – Brown Tides 583Christopher J. GoblerCeratium furca (Ehrenberg) Claparede & Lachmann 585Steve L. MortonChattonella marina 587Carmelo R. TomasCochlodinium – Rust Tide 589Christopher J. GoblerCyanobacteria 591JoAnn M. Burkholder, Christopher J. Gobler, and Judith M. O’Neil Dinophysis 597Steve L. MortonFibrocapsa japonica 599Carmelo R. TomasGambierdiscus 601Michael L. Parsons, Mindy L. Richlen, and Alison RobertsonGymnodinium catenatum 605Allan D. Cembella and Christine J. Band-SchmidtHeterosigma akashiwo 613Carmelo R. TomasKarenia brevis (Davis) Hansen et Moestrup – Florida Red Tide 615Larry E. BrandOstreopsis 617Michael L. Parsons, Mindy L. Richlen, and Alison RobertsonPfiesteria piscicida Steidinger & Burkholder and Pfiesteria shumwayae Glasgow & Burkholder 621JoAnn M. Burkholder and Harold G. MarshallProrocentrum 625Patricia M. Glibert and JoAnn M. BurkholderPrymnesium parvum (Carter) – “Golden Algae” 629Daniel L. Roelke and Schonna R. ManningPseudo-nitzschia – seriata group; delicatissima group 633Raphael KudelaTakayama 637Larry E. BrandAppendix 1 Websites That Routinely Distribute Bulletins on the Presence of Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB) for Public Health 639Appendix 2 State Agencies Providing Information and Updates on Toxic and Harmful Algal Blooms and Water Quality 641Appendix 3 List of General Web Resources 645Index 647