Nanosatellites

Editors Rogerio Atem de Carvalho, Instituto Federal Fluminense, Brazil Jaime Estela, Spectrum Aerospace Group, Germany and Peru Martin Langer, Technical University of Munich, Germany, Orbital Oracle Technologies GmbH, Germany

• List of Contributors xxiiiForeword: Nanosatellite Space Experiment xxixIntroduction by the Editors xxxv1 I-1 A Brief History of Nanosatellites 1Siegfried W. Janson1.1 Introduction 11.2 Historical Nanosatellite Launch Rates 11.3 The First Nanosatellites 31.4 The Large Space Era 81.5 The New Space Era 121.6 Summary 23References 242 I-2a On-board Computer and Data Handling 31Jaime Estela and Sergio Montenegro2.1 Introduction 312.2 History 312.3 Special Requirements for Space Applications 342.4 Hardware 352.5 Design 41References 493 I-2b Operational Systems 51Lucas Ramos Hissa and Rogerio Atem de Carvalho3.1 Introduction 513.2 RTOS Overview 513.3 RTOS on On-board Computers (OBCs): Requirements for a Small Satellite 523.4 Example Projects 553.5 Conclusions 56References 594 I-2c Attitude Control and Determination 61Willem H. Steyn and Vaios J. Lappas4.1 Introduction 614.2 ADCS Fundamentals 614.3 ADCS Requirements and Stabilization Methods 624.4 ADCS Background Theory 654.5 Attitude and Angular Rate Determination 664.6 Attitude and Angular Rate Controllers 724.7 ADCS Sensor and Actuator Hardware 75References 835 I-2d Propulsion Systems 85Flavia Tata Nardini, Michele Coletti, Alexander Reissner, and David Krejci5.1 Introduction 855.2 Propulsion Elements 865.3 Key Elements in the Development of Micropropulsion Systems 875.4 Propulsion System Technologies 905.5 Mission Elements 985.6 Survey of All Existing Systems 1015.7 Future Prospect 113References 1136 I-2e Communications 115Nicolas Appel, Sebastian Rückerl, Martin Langer, and Rolf-Dieter Klein6.1 Introduction 1156.2 Regulatory Considerations 1166.3 Satellite Link Characteristics 1176.4 Channel Coding 1236.5 Data Link Layer 1266.6 Hardware 1286.7 Testing 138References 1407 I-2f Structural Subsystem 143Kenan Y. Sanl𝚤türk, Murat Süer, and A. Rüstem Aslan7.1 Definition and Tasks 1437.2 Existing State-of-the-Art Structures for CubeSats 1457.3 Materials and Thermal Considerations for Structural Design 1507.4 Design Parameters and Tools 1527.5 Design Challenges 1627.6 Future Prospects 163References 1648 I-2g Power Systems 167Marcos Compadre, Ausias Garrigós, and Andrew Strain8.1 Introduction 1678.2 Power Source: Photovoltaic Solar Cells and Solar Array 1708.3 Energy Storage: Lithium-ion Batteries 1728.4 SA-battery Power Conditioning: DET and MPPT 1758.5 Battery Charging Control Loops 1788.6 Bus Power Conditioning and Distribution: Load Converters and Distribution Switches 1798.7 Flight Switch Subsystem 1838.8 DC/DC Converters 1838.9 Power System Sizing: Power Budget, Solar Array, and Battery Selection 1878.10 Conclusions 191References 1919 I-2h Thermal Design, Analysis, and Test 193Philipp Reiss, Matthias Killian, and Philipp Hager9.1 Introduction 1939.2 Typical Thermal Loads 1949.3 Active and Passive Designs 2009.4 Design Approach and Tools 2049.5 Thermal Tests 208References 21210 I-2i Systems Engineering and Quality Assessment 215Lucas Lopes Costa, Geilson Loureiro, Eduardo Escobar Bürger, and Franciele Carlesso10.1 Introduction 21510.2 Systems Engineering Definition and Process 21610.3 Space Project Management: Role of Systems Engineers 22210.4 ECSS and Other Standards 22510.5 Document, Risk Control, and Resources 22810.6 Changing Trends in SE and Quality Assessment for Nanosatellites 233References 23311 I-2j Integration and Testing 235Eduardo Escobar Bürger, Geilson Loureiro, and Lucas Lopes Costa11.1 Introduction 23511.2 Overall Tasks 23611.3 Typical Flow 24111.4 Test Philosophies 24211.5 Typical System Integration Process 24411.6 Typical Test Parameters and Facilities 24411.7 Burden of Integration and Testing 24511.8 Changing Trends in Nanosatellite Testing 249References 25012 I-3a Scientific Payloads 251Anna Gregorio12.1 Introduction 25112.2 Categorization 25212.3 Imagers 25412.4 X-ray Detectors 25612.5 Spectrometers 25912.6 Photometers 26212.7 GNSS Receivers 26512.8 Microbolometers 26712.9 Radiometers 26912.10 Radar Systems 27012.11 Particle Detectors 27412.12 PlasmaWave Analyzers 27712.13 Biological Detectors 28012.14 Solar Sails 28312.15 Conclusions 283References 28313 I-3b In-orbit Technology Demonstration 291Jaime Estela13.1 Introduction 29113.2 Activities of Space Agencies 29213.3 Nanosatellites 29513.4 Microsatellites 29813.5 ISS 301References 30614 I-3c Nanosatellites as Educational Projects 309Merlin F. Barschke14.1 Introduction 30914.2 Satellites and Project-based Learning 30914.3 University Satellite Programs 31214.4 Outcome and Success Criteria 31614.5 Teams and Organizational Structure 31814.6 Challenges and Practical Experiences 31814.7 From Pure Education to Powerful Research Tools 321References 32115 I-3d Formations of Small Satellites 327Klaus Schilling15.1 Introduction 32715.2 Constellations and Formations 32715.3 Orbit Dynamics 32815.4 Satellite Configurations 33115.5 Relevant Specific Small Satellite Technologies to Enable Formations 33215.6 Application Examples 33415.7 Test Environment for Multisatellite Systems 33615.8 Conclusions for Distributed Nanosatellite Systems 337Acknowledgments 338References 33816 I-3e Precise, Autonomous Formation Flight at Low Cost 341Niels Roth, Ben Risi, Robert E. Zee, Grant Bonin, Scott Armitage, and Josh Newman16.1 Introduction 34116.2 Mission Overview 34216.3 System Overview 34316.4 Launch and Early Operations 35016.5 Formation Control Results 35316.6 Conclusion 360Acknowledgments 360References 36017 I-4a Launch Vehicles—Challenges and Solutions 363Kaitlyn Kelley17.1 Introduction 36317.2 Past Nanosatellite Launches 36517.3 Launch Vehicles Commonly Used by Nanosatellites 36717.4 Overview of a Typical Launch Campaign 36817.5 Launch Demand 37117.6 Future Launch Concepts 372References 37418 I-4b Deployment Systems 375A. Rüstem Aslan, Cesar Bernal, and Jordi Puig-Suari18.1 Introduction 37518.2 Definition and Tasks 37518.3 Basics of Deployment Systems 37618.4 State of the Art 37718.5 Future Prospects 395Acknowledgments 396References 39619 I-4c Mission Operations 399Chantal Cappelletti19.1 Introduction 39919.2 Organization of Mission Operations 40019.3 Goals and Functions of Mission Operations 40119.4 Input and Output of Mission Operations 40419.5 MOP 40619.6 Costs and Operations 409References 414Further Reading 41520 I-5 Mission Examples 417Kelly Antonini, Nicolò Carletti, Kevin Cuevas, Matteo Emanuelli, Per Koch, Laura León Pérez, and Daniel Smith20.1 Introduction 41720.2 Mission Types 41820.3 Mission Examples 42020.4 Constellations 43320.5 Perspective 437References 43821 II-1 Ground Segment 441Fernando Aguado Agelet and Alberto González Muíño21.1 Introduction 44121.2 Ground Segment Functionalities 44121.3 Ground Segment Architecture 44221.4 Ground Station Elements 44421.5 Ground Segment Software 44921.6 Ground Segment Operation 45121.7 Future Prospects 452References 45522 II-2 Ground Station Networks 457Lucas Rodrigues Amaduro and Rogerio Atem de Carvalho22.1 Introduction 45722.2 Technological Challenges 45722.3 Visibility Clash Problems of Stations and Satellites 45822.4 The Distributed Ground Station Network 45922.5 Infrastructure 45922.6 Planning and Scheduling 46022.7 Generic Software Architecture 46022.8 Example Networks 46222.9 Traditional Ground Station Approach 46222.10 Heterogeneous Ground Station Approach 46422.11 Homogeneous Ground Station Approach 46622.12 Conclusions 469References 46923 II-3 Ground-based Satellite Tracking 471Enrico Stoll, Jürgen Letschnik, and Christopher Kebschull23.1 Introduction 47123.2 Orbital Element Sets 47223.3 Tracklet Generation from Ground Measurements 47523.4 Tracking CubeSats with Ground Stations 48123.5 Orbit Propagation 48523.6 Principle of Operations of Ground Stations 48723.7 Summary 492References 49324 II-4a AMSAT 495Andrew Barron (ZL3DW)24.1 Introduction 49524.2 Project OSCAR 49624.3 AMSAT Satellite Designations 49924.4 Other Notable AMSAT and OSCAR Satellites 50024.5 The Development of CubeSats 50324.6 FUNcube Satellites 50424.7 Fox Satellites 50524.8 GOLF Satellites 50524.9 The IARU and ITU Resolution 659 506References 50724 II-4b New Radio Technologies 508Andrew Barron (ZL3DW)24.10 Introduction 50824.11 SDR Space Segment 50924.12 SDR Ground Segment 51024.13 Modern Transmitter Design 511Reference 51325 III-1a Cost Breakdown for the Development of Nanosatellites 515Katharine Brumbaugh Gamble25.1 Introduction 51525.2 Recurring Costs 51725.3 Nonrecurring Costs 52125.4 Satellite Cost-estimating Models 52325.5 Risk Estimation and Reduction 52825.6 Conclusions 530References 53026 III-1b Launch Costs 533Merlin F. Barschke26.1 Introduction 53326.2 Launching Nanosatellites 53326.3 Launch Sites 53926.4 Launch Milestones 53926.5 Launch Cost 540References 54127 III-2a Policies and Regulations in Europe 545Neta Palkovitz27.1 Introduction 54527.2 International Space Law 54527.3 National Laws and Practices in EU Member States 55027.4 Future Regulation and Prospects 554References 55528 III-2b Policies and Regulations in North America 557Mike Miller and Kirk Woellert28.1 Introduction 55728.2 Governing Treaties and Laws 55828.3 Orbital Debris Mitigation 56128.4 Space Traffic Management 56328.5 Licensing of Radio Transmission from Space 56628.6 Licensing for Remote Sensing Activities from Space 57028.7 Export Control Laws 57128.8 Conclusion 575References 57729 III-2c International Organizations and International Cooperation 583Jean-Francois Mayence29.1 Introduction 58329.2 The United Nations and Affiliated Organizations 58429.3 International Telecommunications Union 58929.4 Other United Nations Agencies and Bodies 59029.5 Non-UN Organizations 59329.6 Main Non-European Spacefaring Nations 59729.7 Conclusions 600References 60130 III-3a Economy of Small Satellites 603Richard Joye30.1 Introduction 60330.2 Rethinking the Value Chain 60330.3 A Hybrid Small Satellite Value Chain 60430.4 Evolution, Not Revolution? 61130.5 The Economics at Play 61230.6 Satellite Manufacturers 61230.7 Launch Service Providers 61430.8 Satellite Operators 61530.9 Satellite Servicing Providers 61630.10 Data and Solution Providers 61630.11 A Shift Toward New Models 617References 618Further Reading 61831 III-3b Economics and the Future 621Richard Joye31.1 Introduction 62131.2 Themes Shaping the Space Industry 62231.3 Megatrends 62431.4 Conclusion: The Space Industry is in Mutation 632Further Reading 63232 III-3c Networks of Nanosatellites 635Richard Joye32.1 Introduction 63532.2 Why Networks? 63532.3 Opportunities for Networks of Nanosatellites 64132.4 Challenges and Issues 646Reference 648Further Reading 648List of Existing and Upcoming Networks of Satellites – January 2018, Updated March 2019 649Index 663