Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics

ADRIAN BEJAN is the J.A. Jones Distinguished Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Duke University, and an internationally-recognized authority on thermodynamics. The father of the field of design in nature or constructal law, which accounts for the universal natural tendency of all flow systems to evolve freely toward easier flow access, his research covers a broad range of topics in thermodynamics, heat transfer, fluid mechanics, convection, and porous media. Professor Bejan has been awarded eighteen honorary doctorates by universities in eleven countries, and is the recipient of numerous awards including the Max Jacob Memorial Award (ASME & AIChE), the Worcester Reed Warner Medal (ASME), and the Ralph Coats Roe Award (ASEE). The author of over 630 journal articles, he is considered one of the 100 most-cited engineering researchers of all disciplines, in all countries.

• Preface to the First Edition xviiPreface to the Second Edition xxiPreface to The Third Edition xxvPreface xxixAcknowledgments xxxvii1 The First Law 11.1 Terminology 11.2 Closed Systems 41.3 Work Transfer 71.4 Heat Transfer 121.5 Energy Change 161.6 Open Systems 181.7 History 23References 31Problems 332 The Second Law 392.1 Closed Systems 392.1.1 Cycle in Contact with One Temperature Reservoir 392.1.2 Cycle in Contact with Two Temperature Reservoirs 412.1.3 Cycle in Contact with Any Number of Temperature Reservoirs 492.1.4 Process in Contact with Any Number of Temperature Reservoirs 512.2 Open Systems 542.3 Local Equilibrium 562.4 Entropy Maximum and Energy Minimum 572.5 Carathéodory’s Two Axioms 622.6 A Heat Transfer Man’s Two Axioms 712.7 History 77References 78Problems 803 Entropy Generation, Or Exergy Destruction 953.1 Lost Available Work 963.2 Cycles 1023.2.1 Heat Engine Cycles 1033.2.2 Refrigeration Cycles 1043.2.3 Heat Pump Cycles 1073.3 Nonflow Processes 1093.4 Steady-Flow Processes 1133.5 Mechanisms of Entropy Generation 1193.5.1 Heat Transfer across a Temperature Difference 1193.5.2 Flow with Friction 1223.5.3 Mixing 1243.6 Entropy Generation Minimization 1263.6.1 The Method 1263.6.2 Tree-Shaped Fluid Flow 1273.6.3 Entropy Generation Number 130References 132Problems 1334 Single-Phase Systems 1404.1 Simple System 1404.2 Equilibrium Conditions 1414.3 The Fundamental Relation 1464.3.1 Energy Representation 1474.3.2 Entropy Representation 1484.3.3 Extensive Properties versus Intensive Properties 1494.3.4 The Euler Equation 1504.3.5 The Gibbs–Duhem Relation 1514.4 Legendre Transforms 1544.5 Relations between Thermodynamic Properties 1634.5.1 Maxwell’s Relations 1634.5.2 Relations Measured during Special Processes 1664.5.3 Bridgman’s Table 1734.5.4 Jacobians in Thermodynamics 1764.6 Partial Molal Properties 1794.7 Ideal Gas Mixtures 1834.8 Real Gas Mixtures 186References 189Problems 1905 Exergy Analysis 1955.1 Nonflow Systems 1955.2 Flow Systems 1985.3 Generalized Exergy Analysis 2015.4 Air Conditioning 2035.4.1 Mixtures of Air and Water Vapor 2035.4.2 Total Flow Exergy of Humid Air 2055.4.3 Total Flow Exergy of Liquid Water 2075.4.4 Evaporative Cooling 208References 210Problems 2106 Multiphase Systems 2136.1 The Energy Minimum Principle 2136.1.1 The Energy Minimum 2146.1.2 The Enthalpy Minimum 2156.1.3 The Helmholtz Free-Energy Minimum 2166.1.4 The Gibbs Free-Energy Minimum 2176.1.5 The Star Diagram 2176.2 The Stability of a Simple System 2196.2.1 Thermal Stability 2196.2.2 Mechanical Stability 2216.2.3 Chemical Stability 2226.3 The Continuity of the Vapor and Liquid States 2246.3.1 The Andrews Diagram and J. Thomson’s Theory 2246.3.2 The van der Waals Equation of State 2266.3.3 Maxwell’s Equal-Area Rule 2336.3.4 The Clapeyron Relation 2356.4 Phase Diagrams 2366.4.1 The Gibbs Phase Rule 2366.4.2 Single-Component Substances 2376.4.3 Two-Component Mixtures 2396.5 Corresponding States 2476.5.1 Compressibility Factor 2476.5.2 Analytical P(v, T) Equations of State 2536.5.3 Calculation of Properties Based on P(v, T) and Specific Heat 2576.5.4 Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States 2596.5.5 Metastable States 261References 264Problems 2667 Chemically Reactive Systems 2717.1 Equilibrium 2717.1.1 Chemical Reactions 2717.1.2 Affinity 2747.1.3 Le Chatelier–Braun Principle 2777.1.4 Ideal Gas Mixtures 2807.2 Irreversible Reactions 2877.3 Steady-Flow Combustion 2957.3.1 Combustion Stoichiometry 2957.3.2 The First Law 2977.3.3 The Second Law 3037.3.4 Maximum Power Output 3067.4 The Chemical Exergy of Fuels 3167.5 Combustion at Constant Volume 3207.5.1 The First Law 3207.5.2 The Second Law 3227.5.3 Maximum Work Output 323References 324Problems 3258 Power Generation 3288.1 Maximum Power Subject to Size Constraint 3288.2 Maximum Power from a Hot Stream 3328.3 External Irreversibilities 3388.4 Internal Irreversibilities 3448.4.1 Heater 3448.4.2 Expander 3468.4.3 Cooler 3468.4.4 Pump 3488.4.5 Relative Importance of Internal Irreversibilities 3488.5 Advanced Steam Turbine Power Plants 3528.5.1 Superheater, Reheater, and Partial Condenser Vacuum 3528.5.2 Regenerative Feed Heating 3558.5.3 Combined Feed Heating and Reheating 3628.6 Advanced Gas Turbine Power Plants 3668.6.1 External and Internal Irreversibilities 3668.6.2 Regenerative Heat Exchanger, Reheaters, and Intercoolers 3718.6.3 Cooled Turbines 3748.7 Combined Steam Turbine and Gas Turbine Power Plants 376References 379Problems 3819 Solar Power 3949.1 Thermodynamic Properties of Thermal Radiation 3949.1.1 Photons 3959.1.2 Temperature 3969.1.3 Energy 3979.1.4 Pressure 3999.1.5 Entropy 4009.2 Reversible Processes 4039.2.1 Reversible and Adiabatic Expansion or Compression 4039.2.2 Reversible and Isothermal Expansion or Compression 4039.2.3 Carnot Cycle 4049.3 Irreversible Processes 4049.3.1 Adiabatic Free Expansion 4049.3.2 Transformation of Monochromatic Radiation into Blackbody Radiation 4059.3.3 Scattering 4079.3.4 Net Radiative Heat Transfer 4089.3.5 Kirchhoff’s Law 4129.4 The Ideal Conversion of Enclosed Blackbody Radiation 4139.4.1 Petela’s Theory 4139.4.2 Unifying Theory 4169.5 Maximization of Power Output Per Unit Collector Area 4249.5.1 Ideal Concentrators 4249.5.2 Omnicolor Series of Ideal Concentrators 4279.5.3 Unconcentrated Solar Radiation 4289.6 Convectively Cooled Collectors 4319.6.1 Linear Convective Heat Loss Model 4329.6.2 Effect of Collector–Engine Heat Exchanger Irreversibility 4339.6.3 Combined Convective and Radiative Heat Loss 4349.7 Extraterrestrial Solar Power Plant 4369.8 Climate 4389.9 Self-Pumping and Atmospheric Circulation 449References 453Problems 45510 Refrigeration 46110.1 Joule–Thomson Expansion 46110.2 Work-Producing Expansion 46810.3 Brayton Cycle 47110.4 Intermediate Cooling 47710.4.1 Counterflow Heat Exchanger 47710.4.2 Bioheat Transfer 47910.4.3 Distribution of Expanders 48010.4.4 Insulation 48410.5 Liquefaction 49210.5.1 Liquefiers versus Refrigerators 49210.5.2 Heylandt Nitrogen Liquefier 49410.5.3 Efficiency of Liquefiers and Refrigerators 49810.6 Refrigerator Models with Internal Heat Leak 50210.6.1 Heat Leak in Parallel with Reversible Compartment 50210.6.2 Time-Dependent Operation 50510.7 Magnetic Refrigeration 50910.7.1 Fundamental Relations 50910.7.2 Adiabatic Demagnetization 51310.7.3 Paramagnetic Thermometry 51410.7.4 The Third Law of Thermodynamics 517References 518Problems 52111 Entropy Generation Minimization 53111.1 Competing Irreversibilities 53111.1.1 Internal Flow and Heat Transfer 53111.1.2 Heat Transfer Augmentation 53611.1.3 External Flow and Heat Transfer 53811.1.4 Convective Heat Transfer in General 54111.2 Balanced Counterflow Heat Exchangers 54311.2.1 The Ideal Limit 54511.2.2 Area Constraint 54811.2.3 Volume Constraint 55011.2.4 Combined Area and Volume Constraint 55111.2.5 Negligible Pressure Drop Irreversibility 55111.2.6 The Structure of Heat Exchanger Irreversibility 55311.3 Storage Systems 55511.3.1 Sensible-Heat Storage 55511.3.2 Storage Time Interval 55611.3.3 Heat Exchanger Size 55811.3.4 Storage Followed by Removal of Exergy 56111.3.5 Heating and Cooling Subject to Time Constraint 56411.3.6 Latent-Heat Storage 56711.4 Power Maximization or Entropy Generation Minimization 57011.4.1 Heat Transfer Irreversible Power Plant Models 57111.4.2 Minimum Entropy Generation Rate 57311.4.3 Fluid Flow Systems 57711.4.4 Electrical Machines 58111.5 From Entropy Generation Minimization to Constructal Law 58311.5.1 The Generation-of-Configuration Phenomenon 58311.5.2 Organ Size 586References 592Problems 59512 Irreversible Thermodynamics 60112.1 Conjugate Fluxes and Forces 60212.2 Linearized Relations 60612.3 Reciprocity Relations 60712.4 Thermoelectric Phenomena 61012.4.1 Formulations 61012.4.2 The Peltier Effect 61312.4.3 The Seebeck Effect 61512.4.4 The Thomson Effect 61612.4.5 Power Generation 61812.4.6 Refrigeration 62312.5 Heat Conduction in Anisotropic Media 62512.5.1 Formulation in Two Dimensions 62612.5.2 Principal Directions and Conductivities 62812.5.3 The Concentrated Heat Source Experiment 63112.5.4 Three-Dimensional Conduction 63312.6 Mass Diffusion 63512.6.1 Nonisothermal Diffusion of a Single Component 63512.6.2 Nonisothermal Binary Mixtures 63712.6.3 Isothermal Diffusion 639References 640Problems 64213 The Constructal Law 64613.1 Evolution 64613.2 Mathematical Formulation of the Constructal Law 64913.2.1 Properties of Flow Systems with Configuration 64913.2.2 Evolution by Increasing Global Performance 65113.2.3 Evolution by Increasing Compactness 65213.2.4 Evolution by Increasing Flow Territory 65213.2.5 Freedom Is Good for Evolution and Survival (Persistence) 65413.3 Inanimate Flow Systems 65513.3.1 Duct Cross Sections 65513.3.2 Open-Channel Cross Sections 65713.3.3 Tree-Shaped Fluid Flow and River Basins 65813.3.4 Turbulent Flow Structure 66413.3.5 Coalescence of Flowing Solid Packets 66813.3.6 Cracks, Splashes, and Splats 66913.3.7 Dendritic Solidification 66913.3.8 Global Circulation and Climate 67113.4 Animate Flow Systems 67313.4.1 Body Heat Loss 67313.4.2 Branches, Diameters, and Lengths 67813.4.3 Breathing and Heartbeating 68013.4.4 Flying, Running, and Swimming 68113.4.5 Life Span and Life Travel 68713.4.6 Athletics Evolution 68813.5 Size and Efficiency: Economies of Scale 68913.6 Growth, Spreading, and Collecting 69113.7 Asymmetry and Vascularization 69313.8 Human Preferences for Shapes 69713.9 The Arrow of Time 699References 702Problems 706Appendix 725Constants 725Mathematical Formulas 726Variational Calculus 727Properties of Moderately Compressed Liquid States 728Properties of Slightly Superheated Vapor States 729Properties of Cold Water Near the Density Maximum 729References 730Symbols 731Index 741