Dr. Ayrat M. Dimiev, EMD Performance Materials, Darmstadt, Germany.Since 2009, Dr Dimiev has been working very closely with graphene oxide and other graphitic carbon nanomaterials. He spent five years at Rice University studying fundamental aspects of graphene oxide, resulting in several ground-breaking papers in highly ranked journals including Nature and Science, followed by a period at AZ Electronic Materials where he worked on optimizing mass production of graphene oxide, and on developing novel graphene oxide applications. Dr Dimiev currently works at EMD Performance Materials, a business of Merck KGaA, in Darmstadt, Germany.Dr. Siegfried Eigler, Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Göteborg, SwedenDr Eigler received his PhD in organic chemistry from the Friedrich-Alexander-Universit t Erlangen-Nürnberg in 2006 under the guidance of apl. Prof. Dr. Norbert Jux. Subsequently he conducted basic research on electrically conductive polymers and graphene oxide as an industry chemist. In 2011 he became a lecturer and research associate at the Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, where he did habilitation and in 2016 he became Associate Professor at the Chalmers University of Technology. His research focuses on the controlled chemistry of graphene.

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• About the Editors xiList of Contributors xiiiForeword xvPreface xviPart I Fundamentals 11 Graphite Oxide Story – From the Beginning Till the Graphene Hype 3Anton Lerf1.1 Introduction 31.2 Preparation of Graphite Oxide 51.2.1 Trials for Improving and Simplifying GO Preparation 51.2.2 Over‐Oxidation of Graphite 81.2.3 Formation Mechanism – First Approximation 91.3 Discovery of Essential Functional O‐Containing Groups and its Relation to the Development of Structural Models 101.3.1 Analytical Composition of Graphite Oxide 101.3.2 Creation of the Structural Model from 1930 till 2006 111.3.3 Considerations for the Formation Mechanism – Second Approximation 161.4 Properties of Graphite Oxide 181.4.1 Thermal Degradation and its Products 181.4.2 Chemical Reduction Reactions 191.4.3 Reactions with Acids and Bases 211.4.4 “Osmotic Swelling”: Hydration Behavior and Colloid Formation 221.4.5 GO Acidity 231.4.6 Intercalation and Functionalization Reactions 261.4.7 Functional Groups, their Reactions and their Relation to GO Formation and Destruction 281.5 Epilogue 29References 302 Mechanism of Formation and Chemical Structure of Graphene Oxide 36Ayrat M. Dimiev2.1 Introduction 362.2 Basic Concepts of Structure 372.3 Preparation Methods 392.4 Mechanism of Formation 412.4.1 Theoretical Studies and System Complexity 412.4.2 Step 1: Formation of Stage‐1 H 2 So 4 ‐GIC Graphite Intercalation Compound 422.4.3 Step 2: Transformation of Stage‐1 H 2 So 4 ‐ GIC to Pristine Graphite Oxide 432.4.4 Pristine Graphite Oxide Structure 452.4.5 Step 3: Delamination of Pristine Graphite Oxide 472.5 Transformation of Pristine Graphite Oxide Chemical Structure Upon Exposure to Water 472.6 Chemical Structure and Origin of Acidity 512.6.1 Structural Models and the Actual Structure 512.6.2 Origin of Acidity and the Dynamic Structural Model 572.7 Density of Defects and Introduction of Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene 642.7.1 Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene by Charpy–Hummers Approach 652.7.2 Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene from Graphite Sulfate 692.8 Addressing the Challenges of the Two‐Component Structural Model 722.9 Structure of Bulk Graphite Oxide 762.10 Concluding Remarks 80References 813 Characterization Techniques 85Siegfried Eigler and Ayrat M. Dimiev3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of Graphene Oxide 853.1.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Solids 853.1.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of Graphene Oxide 873.1.3 Discussion 923.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 933.3 X‐ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 973.4 Raman Spectroscopy 1003.4.1 Introduction 1013.4.2 Raman Spectroscopy on Molecules 1013.4.3 Raman Spectroscopy on Graphene, GO and RGO 1013.4.4 Defects in Graphene 1033.4.5 Raman Spectra of GO and RGO 1043.4.6 Statistical Raman Microscopy (SRM) 1093.4.7 Outlook 1103.5 Microscopy Methods 1113.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 1133.5.2 Atomic Force Microscopy 1143.5.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy 1153.5.4 High‐Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy 115References 1184 Rheology of Graphene Oxide Dispersions 121Cristina Vallés4.1 Liquid Crystalline Behaviour of Graphene Oxide Dispersions 1214.1.1 Liquid Crystals and Onsager’s Theory 1214.1.2 Nematic Phases in Carbon Nanomaterials 1224.2 Rheological Behaviour of Aqueous Dispersions of LC‐GO 1244.2.1 Dynamic Shear Properties 1254.2.2 Steady Shear Properties 1284.2.3 Recovery of the Structure 1334.2.4 Tuning the Rheology of GO Dispersions to Enable Fabrication 1334.2.5 Electro‐Optical Switching of LC‐GO with an Extremely Large Kerr Coefficient 1364.3 Comparison with Other Systems 1384.3.1 Comparison of Aqueous and Polymer Matrix Systems 1384.3.2 Comparison Between Aqueous Dispersions of GO and Oxidized Carbon Nanotubes: Role of Dimensionality 1414.4 Summary and Perspectives 142References 1435 Optical Properties of Graphene Oxide 147Anton V. Naumov5.1 Introduction 1475.2 Absorption 1485.3 Raman Scattering 1535.4 Photoluminescence 1555.5 Graphene Oxide Quantum Dots 1685.6 Applications 169References 1706 Functionalization and Reduction of Graphene Oxide 175Siegfried Eigler and Ayrat M. Dimiev6.1 Introduction 1756.2 Diverse Structure of Graphene Oxide 1766.3 Stability of Graphene Oxide 1786.3.1 Thermal Stability of Graphene Oxide 1786.3.2 Stability and Chemistry of Graphene Oxide in Aqueous Solution 1796.3.3 Stability of Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene 1826.4 Non‐Covalent Chemistry 1846.5 Covalent Chemistry 1866.5.1 Reactions Mainly at the Basal Plane 1876.5.2 Consideration About C–C Bond Formation on the Basal Planes 1926.5.3 Reactions at Edges 1926.6 Reduction and Disproportionation of Graphene Oxide 2006.6.1 Reduction 2006.6.2 Disproportionation 2036.6.3 Reduction Strategies 2076.6.4 Reduction of Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene 2096.7 Reactions with Reduced Form of Graphene Oxide 2126.8 Controlled Chemistry with Graphene Oxide 2156.8.1 Nomenclature of Polydisperse and Functionalized Graphene 2156.8.2 Organosulfate in Graphene Oxide – Thermogravimetric Analysis 2166.8.3 Synthetic Modifications of Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene 2186.9 Discussion 223References 224Part II Applications 2317 Field‐Effect Transistors, Sensors and Transparent Conductive Films 233Samuele Porro and Ignazio Roppolo7.1 Field‐Effect Transistors 2337.2 Sensors 2377.2.1 Gas Sensors 2387.2.2 Humidity Sensors 2407.2.3 Biological Sensors 2407.3 RGO Transparent Conductive Films 2437.4 Memristors Based on Graphene Oxide 2457.4.1 Fabrication of Devices 2467.4.2 Switching Mechanisms 248References 2508 Energy Harvesting and Storage 257Cary Michael Hayner8.1 Solar Cells 2578.2 Lithium‐Ion Batteries 2588.2.1 Introduction 2588.2.2 Electrochemistry Fundamentals 2588.2.3 Anode Applications 2618.2.4 Cathode Applications 2708.2.5 Emerging Applications 2758.3 Supercapacitors 2788.3.1 Introduction 2788.3.2 Electrochemistry Fundamentals 2798.3.3 Carbon‐only Electrodes 2808.3.4 Pseudo‐Capacitive GO–Composite Electrodes 2878.4 Outlook and Future Development Opportunities 291References 2929 Graphene Oxide Membrane for Molecular Separation 296Ho Bum Park, Hee Wook Yoon and Young Hoon Cho9.1 Rise of Graphene‐Based Membranes: Two Approaches 2969.2 GO Membrane: Structural Point of View 2989.3 GO Membrane for Gas Separation 2999.4 GO Membrane for Water Purification and Desalination 3059.5 Other Membrane Applications 3099.5.1 Fuel Cell Membrane 3099.5.2 Ion‐Selective Membrane for Next‐Generation Batteries 3109.5.3 Dehydration 3119.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 311References 31210 Graphene Oxide‐Based Composite Materials 314Mohsen Moazzami Gudarzi, Seyed Hamed Aboutalebi and Farhad Sharif10.1 Introduction 31410.1.1 How Graphite Met Polymers? 31610.1.2 Graphite Oxide‐Based Composites 31810.1.3 CNTs Versus Graphene (Oxide) 31910.2 Why Mix Graphene Oxide and Polymers? 32310.2.1 Making Stronger Polymers: Mechanical Properties 32510.2.2 Electrical Properties 33310.2.3 Thermal Conductivity 33910.2.4 Barrier Properties 34110.3. Graphene Oxide or Graphene Oxides? 34410.3.1 Size Effect 34410.3.2 Effect of Medium on GO Structure 34710.3.3 The Purification Process 34710.3.4 Thermal Instability 34910.3.5 Health Issues 34910.3.6 Environmental Impact 35110.4 Conclusion 351References 35211 Toxicity Studies and Biomedical Applications of Graphene Oxide 364Larisa Kovbasyuk and Andriy Mokhir11.1 Introduction 36411.2 Toxicity of Graphene Oxide 36511.3 On the Toxicity Mechanism 36611.3.1 Membrane as a Target 36611.3.2 Oxidative Stress 36811.3.3 Other Factors 36911.4 Biomedical Applications of Graphene Oxide 37011.4.1 Graphene Oxide in Treatment of Cancer and Bacterial Infections 37011.4.2 Photothermal Therapy 37011.4.3 Graphene Oxide as a Drug Carrier 37111.5 Bioanalytical Applications 376Acknowledgments 378References 37812 Catalysis 382Ioannis V. Pavlidis12.1 Introduction 38212.2 Graphene Oxide Properties 38312.3 Oxidative Activity 38412.3.1 Oxidation Reactions of GO 38412.3.2 Oxidation of Sulfur Compounds 39112.3.3 Functionalized Materials 39312.4 Polymerization 39412.5 Oxygen Reduction Reaction 39612.6 Friedel–Crafts and Michael Additions 39912.7 Photocatalysis 40012.8 Catalytic Activity of Other Layered Carbon‐Based Materials and Hybrid Materials of GO 40012.8.1 Non‐Functionalized Carbon‐Based Nanomaterials 40012.8.2 Hybrid Catalysts and Alternative Applications 40112.9 Outlook 404References 40513 Challenges of Industrial‐Scale Graphene Oxide Production 410Sean E. Lowe and Yu Lin Zhong13.1 Introduction 41013.2 Scope and Scale of the Graphene Market 41113.3 Overview of Graphene Oxide Synthesis 41413.4 Challenges of Graphene Oxide Production 41613.4.1 Graphite Sources 41613.4.2 Reaction Conditions 41813.4.3 Work‐up and Purification 42213.4.4 Storage, Handling and Quality Control 42513.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions 427References 428Vocabulary 432Index 435

Dr. Ayrat M. Dimiev, EMD Performance Materials, Darmstadt, Germany.Since 2009, Dr Dimiev has been working very closely with graphene oxide and other graphitic carbon nanomaterials. He spent five years at Rice University studying fundamental aspects of graphene oxide, resulting in several ground-breaking papers in highly ranked journals including Nature and Science, followed by a period at AZ Electronic Materials where he worked on optimizing mass production of graphene oxide, and on developing novel graphene oxide applications. Dr Dimiev currently works at EMD Performance Materials, a business of Merck KGaA, in Darmstadt, Germany.Dr. Siegfried Eigler, Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Göteborg, SwedenDr Eigler received his PhD in organic chemistry from the Friedrich-Alexander-Universit t Erlangen-Nürnberg in 2006 under the guidance of apl. Prof. Dr. Norbert Jux. Subsequently he conducted basic research on electrically conductive polymers and graphene oxide as an industry chemist. In 2011 he became a lecturer and research associate at the Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, where he did habilitation and in 2016 he became Associate Professor at the Chalmers University of Technology. His research focuses on the controlled chemistry of graphene.

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• About the Editors xiList of Contributors xiiiForeword xvPreface xviPart I Fundamentals 11 Graphite Oxide Story – From the Beginning Till the Graphene Hype 3Anton Lerf1.1 Introduction 31.2 Preparation of Graphite Oxide 51.2.1 Trials for Improving and Simplifying GO Preparation 51.2.2 Over‐Oxidation of Graphite 81.2.3 Formation Mechanism – First Approximation 91.3 Discovery of Essential Functional O‐Containing Groups and its Relation to the Development of Structural Models 101.3.1 Analytical Composition of Graphite Oxide 101.3.2 Creation of the Structural Model from 1930 till 2006 111.3.3 Considerations for the Formation Mechanism – Second Approximation 161.4 Properties of Graphite Oxide 181.4.1 Thermal Degradation and its Products 181.4.2 Chemical Reduction Reactions 191.4.3 Reactions with Acids and Bases 211.4.4 “Osmotic Swelling”: Hydration Behavior and Colloid Formation 221.4.5 GO Acidity 231.4.6 Intercalation and Functionalization Reactions 261.4.7 Functional Groups, their Reactions and their Relation to GO Formation and Destruction 281.5 Epilogue 29References 302 Mechanism of Formation and Chemical Structure of Graphene Oxide 36Ayrat M. Dimiev2.1 Introduction 362.2 Basic Concepts of Structure 372.3 Preparation Methods 392.4 Mechanism of Formation 412.4.1 Theoretical Studies and System Complexity 412.4.2 Step 1: Formation of Stage‐1 H 2 So 4 ‐GIC Graphite Intercalation Compound 422.4.3 Step 2: Transformation of Stage‐1 H 2 So 4 ‐ GIC to Pristine Graphite Oxide 432.4.4 Pristine Graphite Oxide Structure 452.4.5 Step 3: Delamination of Pristine Graphite Oxide 472.5 Transformation of Pristine Graphite Oxide Chemical Structure Upon Exposure to Water 472.6 Chemical Structure and Origin of Acidity 512.6.1 Structural Models and the Actual Structure 512.6.2 Origin of Acidity and the Dynamic Structural Model 572.7 Density of Defects and Introduction of Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene 642.7.1 Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene by Charpy–Hummers Approach 652.7.2 Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene from Graphite Sulfate 692.8 Addressing the Challenges of the Two‐Component Structural Model 722.9 Structure of Bulk Graphite Oxide 762.10 Concluding Remarks 80References 813 Characterization Techniques 85Siegfried Eigler and Ayrat M. Dimiev3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of Graphene Oxide 853.1.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Solids 853.1.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of Graphene Oxide 873.1.3 Discussion 923.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 933.3 X‐ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 973.4 Raman Spectroscopy 1003.4.1 Introduction 1013.4.2 Raman Spectroscopy on Molecules 1013.4.3 Raman Spectroscopy on Graphene, GO and RGO 1013.4.4 Defects in Graphene 1033.4.5 Raman Spectra of GO and RGO 1043.4.6 Statistical Raman Microscopy (SRM) 1093.4.7 Outlook 1103.5 Microscopy Methods 1113.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 1133.5.2 Atomic Force Microscopy 1143.5.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy 1153.5.4 High‐Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy 115References 1184 Rheology of Graphene Oxide Dispersions 121Cristina Vallés4.1 Liquid Crystalline Behaviour of Graphene Oxide Dispersions 1214.1.1 Liquid Crystals and Onsager’s Theory 1214.1.2 Nematic Phases in Carbon Nanomaterials 1224.2 Rheological Behaviour of Aqueous Dispersions of LC‐GO 1244.2.1 Dynamic Shear Properties 1254.2.2 Steady Shear Properties 1284.2.3 Recovery of the Structure 1334.2.4 Tuning the Rheology of GO Dispersions to Enable Fabrication 1334.2.5 Electro‐Optical Switching of LC‐GO with an Extremely Large Kerr Coefficient 1364.3 Comparison with Other Systems 1384.3.1 Comparison of Aqueous and Polymer Matrix Systems 1384.3.2 Comparison Between Aqueous Dispersions of GO and Oxidized Carbon Nanotubes: Role of Dimensionality 1414.4 Summary and Perspectives 142References 1435 Optical Properties of Graphene Oxide 147Anton V. Naumov5.1 Introduction 1475.2 Absorption 1485.3 Raman Scattering 1535.4 Photoluminescence 1555.5 Graphene Oxide Quantum Dots 1685.6 Applications 169References 1706 Functionalization and Reduction of Graphene Oxide 175Siegfried Eigler and Ayrat M. Dimiev6.1 Introduction 1756.2 Diverse Structure of Graphene Oxide 1766.3 Stability of Graphene Oxide 1786.3.1 Thermal Stability of Graphene Oxide 1786.3.2 Stability and Chemistry of Graphene Oxide in Aqueous Solution 1796.3.3 Stability of Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene 1826.4 Non‐Covalent Chemistry 1846.5 Covalent Chemistry 1866.5.1 Reactions Mainly at the Basal Plane 1876.5.2 Consideration About C–C Bond Formation on the Basal Planes 1926.5.3 Reactions at Edges 1926.6 Reduction and Disproportionation of Graphene Oxide 2006.6.1 Reduction 2006.6.2 Disproportionation 2036.6.3 Reduction Strategies 2076.6.4 Reduction of Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene 2096.7 Reactions with Reduced Form of Graphene Oxide 2126.8 Controlled Chemistry with Graphene Oxide 2156.8.1 Nomenclature of Polydisperse and Functionalized Graphene 2156.8.2 Organosulfate in Graphene Oxide – Thermogravimetric Analysis 2166.8.3 Synthetic Modifications of Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene 2186.9 Discussion 223References 224Part II Applications 2317 Field‐Effect Transistors, Sensors and Transparent Conductive Films 233Samuele Porro and Ignazio Roppolo7.1 Field‐Effect Transistors 2337.2 Sensors 2377.2.1 Gas Sensors 2387.2.2 Humidity Sensors 2407.2.3 Biological Sensors 2407.3 RGO Transparent Conductive Films 2437.4 Memristors Based on Graphene Oxide 2457.4.1 Fabrication of Devices 2467.4.2 Switching Mechanisms 248References 2508 Energy Harvesting and Storage 257Cary Michael Hayner8.1 Solar Cells 2578.2 Lithium‐Ion Batteries 2588.2.1 Introduction 2588.2.2 Electrochemistry Fundamentals 2588.2.3 Anode Applications 2618.2.4 Cathode Applications 2708.2.5 Emerging Applications 2758.3 Supercapacitors 2788.3.1 Introduction 2788.3.2 Electrochemistry Fundamentals 2798.3.3 Carbon‐only Electrodes 2808.3.4 Pseudo‐Capacitive GO–Composite Electrodes 2878.4 Outlook and Future Development Opportunities 291References 2929 Graphene Oxide Membrane for Molecular Separation 296Ho Bum Park, Hee Wook Yoon and Young Hoon Cho9.1 Rise of Graphene‐Based Membranes: Two Approaches 2969.2 GO Membrane: Structural Point of View 2989.3 GO Membrane for Gas Separation 2999.4 GO Membrane for Water Purification and Desalination 3059.5 Other Membrane Applications 3099.5.1 Fuel Cell Membrane 3099.5.2 Ion‐Selective Membrane for Next‐Generation Batteries 3109.5.3 Dehydration 3119.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 311References 31210 Graphene Oxide‐Based Composite Materials 314Mohsen Moazzami Gudarzi, Seyed Hamed Aboutalebi and Farhad Sharif10.1 Introduction 31410.1.1 How Graphite Met Polymers? 31610.1.2 Graphite Oxide‐Based Composites 31810.1.3 CNTs Versus Graphene (Oxide) 31910.2 Why Mix Graphene Oxide and Polymers? 32310.2.1 Making Stronger Polymers: Mechanical Properties 32510.2.2 Electrical Properties 33310.2.3 Thermal Conductivity 33910.2.4 Barrier Properties 34110.3. Graphene Oxide or Graphene Oxides? 34410.3.1 Size Effect 34410.3.2 Effect of Medium on GO Structure 34710.3.3 The Purification Process 34710.3.4 Thermal Instability 34910.3.5 Health Issues 34910.3.6 Environmental Impact 35110.4 Conclusion 351References 35211 Toxicity Studies and Biomedical Applications of Graphene Oxide 364Larisa Kovbasyuk and Andriy Mokhir11.1 Introduction 36411.2 Toxicity of Graphene Oxide 36511.3 On the Toxicity Mechanism 36611.3.1 Membrane as a Target 36611.3.2 Oxidative Stress 36811.3.3 Other Factors 36911.4 Biomedical Applications of Graphene Oxide 37011.4.1 Graphene Oxide in Treatment of Cancer and Bacterial Infections 37011.4.2 Photothermal Therapy 37011.4.3 Graphene Oxide as a Drug Carrier 37111.5 Bioanalytical Applications 376Acknowledgments 378References 37812 Catalysis 382Ioannis V. Pavlidis12.1 Introduction 38212.2 Graphene Oxide Properties 38312.3 Oxidative Activity 38412.3.1 Oxidation Reactions of GO 38412.3.2 Oxidation of Sulfur Compounds 39112.3.3 Functionalized Materials 39312.4 Polymerization 39412.5 Oxygen Reduction Reaction 39612.6 Friedel–Crafts and Michael Additions 39912.7 Photocatalysis 40012.8 Catalytic Activity of Other Layered Carbon‐Based Materials and Hybrid Materials of GO 40012.8.1 Non‐Functionalized Carbon‐Based Nanomaterials 40012.8.2 Hybrid Catalysts and Alternative Applications 40112.9 Outlook 404References 40513 Challenges of Industrial‐Scale Graphene Oxide Production 410Sean E. Lowe and Yu Lin Zhong13.1 Introduction 41013.2 Scope and Scale of the Graphene Market 41113.3 Overview of Graphene Oxide Synthesis 41413.4 Challenges of Graphene Oxide Production 41613.4.1 Graphite Sources 41613.4.2 Reaction Conditions 41813.4.3 Work‐up and Purification 42213.4.4 Storage, Handling and Quality Control 42513.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions 427References 428Vocabulary 432Index 435

Dr. Ayrat M. Dimiev, EMD Performance Materials, Darmstadt, Germany.Since 2009, Dr Dimiev has been working very closely with graphene oxide and other graphitic carbon nanomaterials. He spent five years at Rice University studying fundamental aspects of graphene oxide, resulting in several ground-breaking papers in highly ranked journals including Nature and Science, followed by a period at AZ Electronic Materials where he worked on optimizing mass production of graphene oxide, and on developing novel graphene oxide applications. Dr Dimiev currently works at EMD Performance Materials, a business of Merck KGaA, in Darmstadt, Germany.Dr. Siegfried Eigler, Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Göteborg, SwedenDr Eigler received his PhD in organic chemistry from the Friedrich-Alexander-Universit t Erlangen-Nürnberg in 2006 under the guidance of apl. Prof. Dr. Norbert Jux. Subsequently he conducted basic research on electrically conductive polymers and graphene oxide as an industry chemist. In 2011 he became a lecturer and research associate at the Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, where he did habilitation and in 2016 he became Associate Professor at the Chalmers University of Technology. His research focuses on the controlled chemistry of graphene.

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• About the Editors xiList of Contributors xiiiForeword xvPreface xviPart I Fundamentals 11 Graphite Oxide Story – From the Beginning Till the Graphene Hype 3Anton Lerf1.1 Introduction 31.2 Preparation of Graphite Oxide 51.2.1 Trials for Improving and Simplifying GO Preparation 51.2.2 Over‐Oxidation of Graphite 81.2.3 Formation Mechanism – First Approximation 91.3 Discovery of Essential Functional O‐Containing Groups and its Relation to the Development of Structural Models 101.3.1 Analytical Composition of Graphite Oxide 101.3.2 Creation of the Structural Model from 1930 till 2006 111.3.3 Considerations for the Formation Mechanism – Second Approximation 161.4 Properties of Graphite Oxide 181.4.1 Thermal Degradation and its Products 181.4.2 Chemical Reduction Reactions 191.4.3 Reactions with Acids and Bases 211.4.4 “Osmotic Swelling”: Hydration Behavior and Colloid Formation 221.4.5 GO Acidity 231.4.6 Intercalation and Functionalization Reactions 261.4.7 Functional Groups, their Reactions and their Relation to GO Formation and Destruction 281.5 Epilogue 29References 302 Mechanism of Formation and Chemical Structure of Graphene Oxide 36Ayrat M. Dimiev2.1 Introduction 362.2 Basic Concepts of Structure 372.3 Preparation Methods 392.4 Mechanism of Formation 412.4.1 Theoretical Studies and System Complexity 412.4.2 Step 1: Formation of Stage‐1 H 2 So 4 ‐GIC Graphite Intercalation Compound 422.4.3 Step 2: Transformation of Stage‐1 H 2 So 4 ‐ GIC to Pristine Graphite Oxide 432.4.4 Pristine Graphite Oxide Structure 452.4.5 Step 3: Delamination of Pristine Graphite Oxide 472.5 Transformation of Pristine Graphite Oxide Chemical Structure Upon Exposure to Water 472.6 Chemical Structure and Origin of Acidity 512.6.1 Structural Models and the Actual Structure 512.6.2 Origin of Acidity and the Dynamic Structural Model 572.7 Density of Defects and Introduction of Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene 642.7.1 Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene by Charpy–Hummers Approach 652.7.2 Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene from Graphite Sulfate 692.8 Addressing the Challenges of the Two‐Component Structural Model 722.9 Structure of Bulk Graphite Oxide 762.10 Concluding Remarks 80References 813 Characterization Techniques 85Siegfried Eigler and Ayrat M. Dimiev3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of Graphene Oxide 853.1.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Solids 853.1.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of Graphene Oxide 873.1.3 Discussion 923.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 933.3 X‐ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 973.4 Raman Spectroscopy 1003.4.1 Introduction 1013.4.2 Raman Spectroscopy on Molecules 1013.4.3 Raman Spectroscopy on Graphene, GO and RGO 1013.4.4 Defects in Graphene 1033.4.5 Raman Spectra of GO and RGO 1043.4.6 Statistical Raman Microscopy (SRM) 1093.4.7 Outlook 1103.5 Microscopy Methods 1113.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 1133.5.2 Atomic Force Microscopy 1143.5.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy 1153.5.4 High‐Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy 115References 1184 Rheology of Graphene Oxide Dispersions 121Cristina Vallés4.1 Liquid Crystalline Behaviour of Graphene Oxide Dispersions 1214.1.1 Liquid Crystals and Onsager’s Theory 1214.1.2 Nematic Phases in Carbon Nanomaterials 1224.2 Rheological Behaviour of Aqueous Dispersions of LC‐GO 1244.2.1 Dynamic Shear Properties 1254.2.2 Steady Shear Properties 1284.2.3 Recovery of the Structure 1334.2.4 Tuning the Rheology of GO Dispersions to Enable Fabrication 1334.2.5 Electro‐Optical Switching of LC‐GO with an Extremely Large Kerr Coefficient 1364.3 Comparison with Other Systems 1384.3.1 Comparison of Aqueous and Polymer Matrix Systems 1384.3.2 Comparison Between Aqueous Dispersions of GO and Oxidized Carbon Nanotubes: Role of Dimensionality 1414.4 Summary and Perspectives 142References 1435 Optical Properties of Graphene Oxide 147Anton V. Naumov5.1 Introduction 1475.2 Absorption 1485.3 Raman Scattering 1535.4 Photoluminescence 1555.5 Graphene Oxide Quantum Dots 1685.6 Applications 169References 1706 Functionalization and Reduction of Graphene Oxide 175Siegfried Eigler and Ayrat M. Dimiev6.1 Introduction 1756.2 Diverse Structure of Graphene Oxide 1766.3 Stability of Graphene Oxide 1786.3.1 Thermal Stability of Graphene Oxide 1786.3.2 Stability and Chemistry of Graphene Oxide in Aqueous Solution 1796.3.3 Stability of Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene 1826.4 Non‐Covalent Chemistry 1846.5 Covalent Chemistry 1866.5.1 Reactions Mainly at the Basal Plane 1876.5.2 Consideration About C–C Bond Formation on the Basal Planes 1926.5.3 Reactions at Edges 1926.6 Reduction and Disproportionation of Graphene Oxide 2006.6.1 Reduction 2006.6.2 Disproportionation 2036.6.3 Reduction Strategies 2076.6.4 Reduction of Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene 2096.7 Reactions with Reduced Form of Graphene Oxide 2126.8 Controlled Chemistry with Graphene Oxide 2156.8.1 Nomenclature of Polydisperse and Functionalized Graphene 2156.8.2 Organosulfate in Graphene Oxide – Thermogravimetric Analysis 2166.8.3 Synthetic Modifications of Oxo‐Functionalized Graphene 2186.9 Discussion 223References 224Part II Applications 2317 Field‐Effect Transistors, Sensors and Transparent Conductive Films 233Samuele Porro and Ignazio Roppolo7.1 Field‐Effect Transistors 2337.2 Sensors 2377.2.1 Gas Sensors 2387.2.2 Humidity Sensors 2407.2.3 Biological Sensors 2407.3 RGO Transparent Conductive Films 2437.4 Memristors Based on Graphene Oxide 2457.4.1 Fabrication of Devices 2467.4.2 Switching Mechanisms 248References 2508 Energy Harvesting and Storage 257Cary Michael Hayner8.1 Solar Cells 2578.2 Lithium‐Ion Batteries 2588.2.1 Introduction 2588.2.2 Electrochemistry Fundamentals 2588.2.3 Anode Applications 2618.2.4 Cathode Applications 2708.2.5 Emerging Applications 2758.3 Supercapacitors 2788.3.1 Introduction 2788.3.2 Electrochemistry Fundamentals 2798.3.3 Carbon‐only Electrodes 2808.3.4 Pseudo‐Capacitive GO–Composite Electrodes 2878.4 Outlook and Future Development Opportunities 291References 2929 Graphene Oxide Membrane for Molecular Separation 296Ho Bum Park, Hee Wook Yoon and Young Hoon Cho9.1 Rise of Graphene‐Based Membranes: Two Approaches 2969.2 GO Membrane: Structural Point of View 2989.3 GO Membrane for Gas Separation 2999.4 GO Membrane for Water Purification and Desalination 3059.5 Other Membrane Applications 3099.5.1 Fuel Cell Membrane 3099.5.2 Ion‐Selective Membrane for Next‐Generation Batteries 3109.5.3 Dehydration 3119.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 311References 31210 Graphene Oxide‐Based Composite Materials 314Mohsen Moazzami Gudarzi, Seyed Hamed Aboutalebi and Farhad Sharif10.1 Introduction 31410.1.1 How Graphite Met Polymers? 31610.1.2 Graphite Oxide‐Based Composites 31810.1.3 CNTs Versus Graphene (Oxide) 31910.2 Why Mix Graphene Oxide and Polymers? 32310.2.1 Making Stronger Polymers: Mechanical Properties 32510.2.2 Electrical Properties 33310.2.3 Thermal Conductivity 33910.2.4 Barrier Properties 34110.3. Graphene Oxide or Graphene Oxides? 34410.3.1 Size Effect 34410.3.2 Effect of Medium on GO Structure 34710.3.3 The Purification Process 34710.3.4 Thermal Instability 34910.3.5 Health Issues 34910.3.6 Environmental Impact 35110.4 Conclusion 351References 35211 Toxicity Studies and Biomedical Applications of Graphene Oxide 364Larisa Kovbasyuk and Andriy Mokhir11.1 Introduction 36411.2 Toxicity of Graphene Oxide 36511.3 On the Toxicity Mechanism 36611.3.1 Membrane as a Target 36611.3.2 Oxidative Stress 36811.3.3 Other Factors 36911.4 Biomedical Applications of Graphene Oxide 37011.4.1 Graphene Oxide in Treatment of Cancer and Bacterial Infections 37011.4.2 Photothermal Therapy 37011.4.3 Graphene Oxide as a Drug Carrier 37111.5 Bioanalytical Applications 376Acknowledgments 378References 37812 Catalysis 382Ioannis V. Pavlidis12.1 Introduction 38212.2 Graphene Oxide Properties 38312.3 Oxidative Activity 38412.3.1 Oxidation Reactions of GO 38412.3.2 Oxidation of Sulfur Compounds 39112.3.3 Functionalized Materials 39312.4 Polymerization 39412.5 Oxygen Reduction Reaction 39612.6 Friedel–Crafts and Michael Additions 39912.7 Photocatalysis 40012.8 Catalytic Activity of Other Layered Carbon‐Based Materials and Hybrid Materials of GO 40012.8.1 Non‐Functionalized Carbon‐Based Nanomaterials 40012.8.2 Hybrid Catalysts and Alternative Applications 40112.9 Outlook 404References 40513 Challenges of Industrial‐Scale Graphene Oxide Production 410Sean E. Lowe and Yu Lin Zhong13.1 Introduction 41013.2 Scope and Scale of the Graphene Market 41113.3 Overview of Graphene Oxide Synthesis 41413.4 Challenges of Graphene Oxide Production 41613.4.1 Graphite Sources 41613.4.2 Reaction Conditions 41813.4.3 Work‐up and Purification 42213.4.4 Storage, Handling and Quality Control 42513.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions 427References 428Vocabulary 432Index 435