Ralph Zito, PhD, was a pioneer in the field of electrical energy for over 30 years. With more than 40 patents and 60 papers to his credit, his resume is a virtual who's who of energy companies, such as GE, Westinghouse, and Sylvania, to name a few. He taught at the Carnegie Institute, where he obtained his doctorate, and did research at New York University, where he received his baccalaureate. Ralph Zito passed away in 2012. Haleh Ardebili, PhD, is currently the Bill D. Cook Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Houston. She also holds a joint appointment in Materials Science and Engineering Program. She received her B.S. Honors degree in Engineering Science and Mechanics from Pennsylvania State University (1994), M.S. in Mechanical Engineering at the Johns Hopkins University (1996), and a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Maryland at College Park (2001). Ardebili was a research scientist at General Electric R&D, and later a postdoctoral fellow at Rice University in 2010 before joining University of Houston. Her current research work focuses on materials for energy storage and topics include flexible and stretchable lithium ion batteries, next-generation polymer nanocomposite electrolytes among others. She has several publications and patents in the areas of energy storage and electronics. Her awards and honors include the NSF CAREER, Texas Space Grants Consortium New Investigators Program, and the Kittinger award for teaching. She is a regular contributor to the National Public Radio Show, "Engines of Our Ingenuity".

• Preface to Second Edition xiAcknowledgements to First Edition xvAcknowledgements to Second Edition xvi1 Introduction 11.1 The Energy Problem 11.1.1 Increasing Population and Energy Consumption 21.1.2 The Greenhouse Effect 31.1.3 Energy Portability 41.2 The Purposes of Energy Storage 51.3 Types of Energy Storage 61.4 Sources of Energy 101.5 Overview of this Book 122 Fundamentals of Energy 152.1 Classical Mechanics and Mechanical Energy 152.1.1 The Concept of Energy 152.1.2 Kinetic Energy 192.1.3 Gravitational Potential Energy 262.1.4 Elastic Potential Energy 272.2 Electrical Energy 282.3 Chemical Energy 312.3.1 Nucleosynthesis and the Origin of Elements 312.3.2 Breaking and Forming the Chemical Bonds 352.3.3 Chemical vs. Electrochemical Reactions 362.3.4 Hydrogen 372.4 Thermal Energy 392.4.1 Temperature 392.4.2 Thermal Energy Storage Types 402.4.3 Phase Change Materials 423 Conversion and Storage 433.1 Availability of Solar Energy 463.2 Conversion Processes 483.2.1 Photovoltaic Conversion Process 493.2.2 Thermoelectric Effects: Seebeck and Peltier 493.2.3 Multiple P-N Cell Structure Shown with Heat 503.2.4 Early Examples of Thermoelectric Generators 503.2.5 Thermionic Converter 513.2.6 Thermogalvanic Conversion 513.3 Storage Processes
 543.3.1 Redox Full-Flow Electrolyte Systems 543.3.2 Full Flow and Static Electrolyte System Comparisons 554 Practical Purposes of Energy Storage 594.1 The Need for Storage 594.2 The Need for Secondary Energy Systems 624.2.1 Comparisons and Background Information 634.3 Sizing Power Requirements of Familiar Activities 644.3.1 Examples of Directly Available Human Manual Power Mechanically Unaided 664.3.1.1 Arm Throwing 664.3.1.2 Vehicle Propulsion by Human Powered Leg Muscles 664.3.1.3 Mechanical Storage: Archer’s Bow and Arrow 674.4 On-the-Road Vehicles 694.4.1 Land Vehicle Propulsion Requirements Summary 694.5 Rocket Propulsion Energy Needs Comparison 705 Competing Storage Methods 715.1 Problems with Batteries 725.2 Hydrocarbon Fuel: Energy Density Data 755.3 Electrochemical Cells 775.4 Metal-Halogen and Half-Redox Couples 785.5 Full Redox Couples 835.6 Possible Applications 856 The Concentration Cell 896.1 Colligative Properties of Matter 896.2 Electrochemical Application of Colligative Properties 916.2.1 Compressed Gas 936.2.2 Osmosis 946.2.3 Electrostatic Capacitor 956.2.4 Concentration Cells: CIR (Common Ion Redox) 966.3 Further Discussions on Fundamental Issues 1016.4 Adsorption and Diffusion Rate Balance 1076.5 Storage by Adsorption and Solids Precipitation 1096.6 Some Interesting Aspects of Concentration Cells 1136.7 Concentration Cell Storage Mechanisms that Employ Sulfur 1166.8 Species Balance 1186.9 Electrode Surface Potentials 1196.10 Further Examination of Concentration Ratios 1206.11 Empirical Results with Small Laboratory Cells 1226.12 Iron/Iron Concentration Cell Properties 1266.13 The Mechanisms of Energy Storage Cells 1276.14 Operational Models of Sulfide Based Cells 1326.15 Storage Solely in Bulk Electrolyte 1346.16 More on Storage of Reagents in Adsorbed State 1376.17 Energy Density 1406.18 Observations Regarding Electrical Behavior 1416.19 Concluding Comments 1436.20 Typical Performance Characteristics 1456.21 Sulfide/Sulfur Half Cell Balance 1456.22 General Cell Attributes 1466.23 Electrolyte Information 1466.24 Concentration Cell Mechanism and Associated Mathematics 1496.25 Calculated Performance Data 1506.26 Another S/S−2 Cell Balance Analysis Method 1536.27 A Different Example of a Concentration Cell, Fe+2/ Fe+3 1556.28 Performance Calculations Based on Nernst Potentials 1566.28.1 Constant Current Discharge 1576.28.2 Constant Power Discharge 1586.29 Empirical Data 1607 Thermodynamics of Concentration Cells 1637.1 Thermodynamic Background 1637.2 The CIR Cell 1668 Polysulfide – Diffusion Analysis 1758.1 Polarization Voltages and Thermodynamics 1768.2 Diffusion and Transport Processes at the (−) Electrode Surface 1778.3 Electrode Surface Properties, Holes, and Pores 1798.4 Electric (Ionic) Current Density Estimates 1838.5 Diffusion and Supply of Reagents 1848.6 Cell Dynamics 1868.6.1 Electrode Processes Analyses 1868.6.2 Polymeric Number Change 1868.7 Further Analysis of Electrode Behavior 1988.7.1 Flat Electrode with Some Storage Properties 1988.8 Assessing the Values of Reagent Concentrations 2068.9 Solving the Differential Equations 2078.10 Cell and Negative Electrode Performance Analysis 2198.11 General Comments 2259 Design Considerations 2279.1 Examination of Diffusion and Reaction Rates and Cell Design 2279.2 Electrodes 2289.3 Physical Spacing in Cell Designs 2299.3.1 Electrode Structures 2299.4 Carbon-Polymer Composite Electrodes 2339.4.1 Particle Shapes and Sizes 2359.4.2 Metal to Carbon Resistance 2359.4.3 Cell Spacing 2369.5 Resistance Measurements in Test Cells 2379.6 Electrolytes and Membranes 2399.7 Energy and Power Density Compromises 2409.8 Overcharging Effects on Cells 2449.9 Imbalance Considerations 24410 Electrolytes, Separators, and Membranes 24510.1 Electrolyte Classifications 24610.2 Ionic Conductivity 24710.2.1 Measurement Techniques 24710.2.2 Nyquist Plot Circuit Fitting 24910.3 Ion Conduction Theory 25110.3.1 Ion Conduction in Liquid Electrolytes 25210.3.2 Ion Conduction in Polymer Electrolytes 25610.3.3 Ion Conduction in Ceramic Electrolytes 26010.4 Factors Affecting Ion Conductivity 26210.5 Transference Number 26310.6 Electrolytes for Lithium Ion Batteries 26410.6.1 Liquid Electrolytes 26410.6.1.1 Non-Aqueous Electrolytes 26410.6.1.2 Aqueous Electrolytes 26810.6.2 Solid and Quasi-Solid Electrolytes 27010.6.2.1 Polymer Electrolytes 27010.6.2.2 Ceramic Electrolytes 27210.7 Electrolytes for Supercapacitors 27210.8 Electrolytes for Fuel Cells 27610.9 Fillers and Additives 28211 Single Cell Empirical Data 28311.1 Design and Construction of Cells and the Materials Employed 28311.2 Experimental Data 28712 Conclusions and Future Trends 28912.1 Future of Energy Storage 28912.2 Flexible and Stretchable Energy Storage Devices 29012.3 Self-Charging Energy Storage Devices 29412.4 Recovering Wasted Energy 29512.5 Recycling Energy Storage Devices 29812.6 New Chemistry for Electrochemical Cells 30012.7 Non-Electrochemical Energy Storage 30112.8 Concentration Cells 30212.8.1 Pros and Cons of Concentration Cells 30312.8.2 Future Performance and Limitations 304Appendix 1 307Appendix 2 323Bibliography 335Index 341

Ralph Zito, PhD, was a pioneer in the field of electrical energy for over 30 years. With more than 40 patents and 60 papers to his credit, his resume is a virtual who's who of energy companies, such as GE, Westinghouse, and Sylvania, to name a few. He taught at the Carnegie Institute, where he obtained his doctorate, and did research at New York University, where he received his baccalaureate. Ralph Zito passed away in 2012. Haleh Ardebili, PhD, is currently the Bill D. Cook Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Houston. She also holds a joint appointment in Materials Science and Engineering Program. She received her B.S. Honors degree in Engineering Science and Mechanics from Pennsylvania State University (1994), M.S. in Mechanical Engineering at the Johns Hopkins University (1996), and a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Maryland at College Park (2001). Ardebili was a research scientist at General Electric R&D, and later a postdoctoral fellow at Rice University in 2010 before joining University of Houston. Her current research work focuses on materials for energy storage and topics include flexible and stretchable lithium ion batteries, next-generation polymer nanocomposite electrolytes among others. She has several publications and patents in the areas of energy storage and electronics. Her awards and honors include the NSF CAREER, Texas Space Grants Consortium New Investigators Program, and the Kittinger award for teaching. She is a regular contributor to the National Public Radio Show, "Engines of Our Ingenuity".

• Preface to Second Edition xiAcknowledgements to First Edition xvAcknowledgements to Second Edition xvi1 Introduction 11.1 The Energy Problem 11.1.1 Increasing Population and Energy Consumption 21.1.2 The Greenhouse Effect 31.1.3 Energy Portability 41.2 The Purposes of Energy Storage 51.3 Types of Energy Storage 61.4 Sources of Energy 101.5 Overview of this Book 122 Fundamentals of Energy 152.1 Classical Mechanics and Mechanical Energy 152.1.1 The Concept of Energy 152.1.2 Kinetic Energy 192.1.3 Gravitational Potential Energy 262.1.4 Elastic Potential Energy 272.2 Electrical Energy 282.3 Chemical Energy 312.3.1 Nucleosynthesis and the Origin of Elements 312.3.2 Breaking and Forming the Chemical Bonds 352.3.3 Chemical vs. Electrochemical Reactions 362.3.4 Hydrogen 372.4 Thermal Energy 392.4.1 Temperature 392.4.2 Thermal Energy Storage Types 402.4.3 Phase Change Materials 423 Conversion and Storage 433.1 Availability of Solar Energy 463.2 Conversion Processes 483.2.1 Photovoltaic Conversion Process 493.2.2 Thermoelectric Effects: Seebeck and Peltier 493.2.3 Multiple P-N Cell Structure Shown with Heat 503.2.4 Early Examples of Thermoelectric Generators 503.2.5 Thermionic Converter 513.2.6 Thermogalvanic Conversion 513.3 Storage Processes
 543.3.1 Redox Full-Flow Electrolyte Systems 543.3.2 Full Flow and Static Electrolyte System Comparisons 554 Practical Purposes of Energy Storage 594.1 The Need for Storage 594.2 The Need for Secondary Energy Systems 624.2.1 Comparisons and Background Information 634.3 Sizing Power Requirements of Familiar Activities 644.3.1 Examples of Directly Available Human Manual Power Mechanically Unaided 664.3.1.1 Arm Throwing 664.3.1.2 Vehicle Propulsion by Human Powered Leg Muscles 664.3.1.3 Mechanical Storage: Archer’s Bow and Arrow 674.4 On-the-Road Vehicles 694.4.1 Land Vehicle Propulsion Requirements Summary 694.5 Rocket Propulsion Energy Needs Comparison 705 Competing Storage Methods 715.1 Problems with Batteries 725.2 Hydrocarbon Fuel: Energy Density Data 755.3 Electrochemical Cells 775.4 Metal-Halogen and Half-Redox Couples 785.5 Full Redox Couples 835.6 Possible Applications 856 The Concentration Cell 896.1 Colligative Properties of Matter 896.2 Electrochemical Application of Colligative Properties 916.2.1 Compressed Gas 936.2.2 Osmosis 946.2.3 Electrostatic Capacitor 956.2.4 Concentration Cells: CIR (Common Ion Redox) 966.3 Further Discussions on Fundamental Issues 1016.4 Adsorption and Diffusion Rate Balance 1076.5 Storage by Adsorption and Solids Precipitation 1096.6 Some Interesting Aspects of Concentration Cells 1136.7 Concentration Cell Storage Mechanisms that Employ Sulfur 1166.8 Species Balance 1186.9 Electrode Surface Potentials 1196.10 Further Examination of Concentration Ratios 1206.11 Empirical Results with Small Laboratory Cells 1226.12 Iron/Iron Concentration Cell Properties 1266.13 The Mechanisms of Energy Storage Cells 1276.14 Operational Models of Sulfide Based Cells 1326.15 Storage Solely in Bulk Electrolyte 1346.16 More on Storage of Reagents in Adsorbed State 1376.17 Energy Density 1406.18 Observations Regarding Electrical Behavior 1416.19 Concluding Comments 1436.20 Typical Performance Characteristics 1456.21 Sulfide/Sulfur Half Cell Balance 1456.22 General Cell Attributes 1466.23 Electrolyte Information 1466.24 Concentration Cell Mechanism and Associated Mathematics 1496.25 Calculated Performance Data 1506.26 Another S/S−2 Cell Balance Analysis Method 1536.27 A Different Example of a Concentration Cell, Fe+2/ Fe+3 1556.28 Performance Calculations Based on Nernst Potentials 1566.28.1 Constant Current Discharge 1576.28.2 Constant Power Discharge 1586.29 Empirical Data 1607 Thermodynamics of Concentration Cells 1637.1 Thermodynamic Background 1637.2 The CIR Cell 1668 Polysulfide – Diffusion Analysis 1758.1 Polarization Voltages and Thermodynamics 1768.2 Diffusion and Transport Processes at the (−) Electrode Surface 1778.3 Electrode Surface Properties, Holes, and Pores 1798.4 Electric (Ionic) Current Density Estimates 1838.5 Diffusion and Supply of Reagents 1848.6 Cell Dynamics 1868.6.1 Electrode Processes Analyses 1868.6.2 Polymeric Number Change 1868.7 Further Analysis of Electrode Behavior 1988.7.1 Flat Electrode with Some Storage Properties 1988.8 Assessing the Values of Reagent Concentrations 2068.9 Solving the Differential Equations 2078.10 Cell and Negative Electrode Performance Analysis 2198.11 General Comments 2259 Design Considerations 2279.1 Examination of Diffusion and Reaction Rates and Cell Design 2279.2 Electrodes 2289.3 Physical Spacing in Cell Designs 2299.3.1 Electrode Structures 2299.4 Carbon-Polymer Composite Electrodes 2339.4.1 Particle Shapes and Sizes 2359.4.2 Metal to Carbon Resistance 2359.4.3 Cell Spacing 2369.5 Resistance Measurements in Test Cells 2379.6 Electrolytes and Membranes 2399.7 Energy and Power Density Compromises 2409.8 Overcharging Effects on Cells 2449.9 Imbalance Considerations 24410 Electrolytes, Separators, and Membranes 24510.1 Electrolyte Classifications 24610.2 Ionic Conductivity 24710.2.1 Measurement Techniques 24710.2.2 Nyquist Plot Circuit Fitting 24910.3 Ion Conduction Theory 25110.3.1 Ion Conduction in Liquid Electrolytes 25210.3.2 Ion Conduction in Polymer Electrolytes 25610.3.3 Ion Conduction in Ceramic Electrolytes 26010.4 Factors Affecting Ion Conductivity 26210.5 Transference Number 26310.6 Electrolytes for Lithium Ion Batteries 26410.6.1 Liquid Electrolytes 26410.6.1.1 Non-Aqueous Electrolytes 26410.6.1.2 Aqueous Electrolytes 26810.6.2 Solid and Quasi-Solid Electrolytes 27010.6.2.1 Polymer Electrolytes 27010.6.2.2 Ceramic Electrolytes 27210.7 Electrolytes for Supercapacitors 27210.8 Electrolytes for Fuel Cells 27610.9 Fillers and Additives 28211 Single Cell Empirical Data 28311.1 Design and Construction of Cells and the Materials Employed 28311.2 Experimental Data 28712 Conclusions and Future Trends 28912.1 Future of Energy Storage 28912.2 Flexible and Stretchable Energy Storage Devices 29012.3 Self-Charging Energy Storage Devices 29412.4 Recovering Wasted Energy 29512.5 Recycling Energy Storage Devices 29812.6 New Chemistry for Electrochemical Cells 30012.7 Non-Electrochemical Energy Storage 30112.8 Concentration Cells 30212.8.1 Pros and Cons of Concentration Cells 30312.8.2 Future Performance and Limitations 304Appendix 1 307Appendix 2 323Bibliography 335Index 341

Ralph Zito, PhD, was a pioneer in the field of electrical energy for over 30 years. With more than 40 patents and 60 papers to his credit, his resume is a virtual who's who of energy companies, such as GE, Westinghouse, and Sylvania, to name a few. He taught at the Carnegie Institute, where he obtained his doctorate, and did research at New York University, where he received his baccalaureate. Ralph Zito passed away in 2012. Haleh Ardebili, PhD, is currently the Bill D. Cook Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Houston. She also holds a joint appointment in Materials Science and Engineering Program. She received her B.S. Honors degree in Engineering Science and Mechanics from Pennsylvania State University (1994), M.S. in Mechanical Engineering at the Johns Hopkins University (1996), and a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Maryland at College Park (2001). Ardebili was a research scientist at General Electric R&D, and later a postdoctoral fellow at Rice University in 2010 before joining University of Houston. Her current research work focuses on materials for energy storage and topics include flexible and stretchable lithium ion batteries, next-generation polymer nanocomposite electrolytes among others. She has several publications and patents in the areas of energy storage and electronics. Her awards and honors include the NSF CAREER, Texas Space Grants Consortium New Investigators Program, and the Kittinger award for teaching. She is a regular contributor to the National Public Radio Show, "Engines of Our Ingenuity".

• Preface to Second Edition xiAcknowledgements to First Edition xvAcknowledgements to Second Edition xvi1 Introduction 11.1 The Energy Problem 11.1.1 Increasing Population and Energy Consumption 21.1.2 The Greenhouse Effect 31.1.3 Energy Portability 41.2 The Purposes of Energy Storage 51.3 Types of Energy Storage 61.4 Sources of Energy 101.5 Overview of this Book 122 Fundamentals of Energy 152.1 Classical Mechanics and Mechanical Energy 152.1.1 The Concept of Energy 152.1.2 Kinetic Energy 192.1.3 Gravitational Potential Energy 262.1.4 Elastic Potential Energy 272.2 Electrical Energy 282.3 Chemical Energy 312.3.1 Nucleosynthesis and the Origin of Elements 312.3.2 Breaking and Forming the Chemical Bonds 352.3.3 Chemical vs. Electrochemical Reactions 362.3.4 Hydrogen 372.4 Thermal Energy 392.4.1 Temperature 392.4.2 Thermal Energy Storage Types 402.4.3 Phase Change Materials 423 Conversion and Storage 433.1 Availability of Solar Energy 463.2 Conversion Processes 483.2.1 Photovoltaic Conversion Process 493.2.2 Thermoelectric Effects: Seebeck and Peltier 493.2.3 Multiple P-N Cell Structure Shown with Heat 503.2.4 Early Examples of Thermoelectric Generators 503.2.5 Thermionic Converter 513.2.6 Thermogalvanic Conversion 513.3 Storage Processes
 543.3.1 Redox Full-Flow Electrolyte Systems 543.3.2 Full Flow and Static Electrolyte System Comparisons 554 Practical Purposes of Energy Storage 594.1 The Need for Storage 594.2 The Need for Secondary Energy Systems 624.2.1 Comparisons and Background Information 634.3 Sizing Power Requirements of Familiar Activities 644.3.1 Examples of Directly Available Human Manual Power Mechanically Unaided 664.3.1.1 Arm Throwing 664.3.1.2 Vehicle Propulsion by Human Powered Leg Muscles 664.3.1.3 Mechanical Storage: Archer’s Bow and Arrow 674.4 On-the-Road Vehicles 694.4.1 Land Vehicle Propulsion Requirements Summary 694.5 Rocket Propulsion Energy Needs Comparison 705 Competing Storage Methods 715.1 Problems with Batteries 725.2 Hydrocarbon Fuel: Energy Density Data 755.3 Electrochemical Cells 775.4 Metal-Halogen and Half-Redox Couples 785.5 Full Redox Couples 835.6 Possible Applications 856 The Concentration Cell 896.1 Colligative Properties of Matter 896.2 Electrochemical Application of Colligative Properties 916.2.1 Compressed Gas 936.2.2 Osmosis 946.2.3 Electrostatic Capacitor 956.2.4 Concentration Cells: CIR (Common Ion Redox) 966.3 Further Discussions on Fundamental Issues 1016.4 Adsorption and Diffusion Rate Balance 1076.5 Storage by Adsorption and Solids Precipitation 1096.6 Some Interesting Aspects of Concentration Cells 1136.7 Concentration Cell Storage Mechanisms that Employ Sulfur 1166.8 Species Balance 1186.9 Electrode Surface Potentials 1196.10 Further Examination of Concentration Ratios 1206.11 Empirical Results with Small Laboratory Cells 1226.12 Iron/Iron Concentration Cell Properties 1266.13 The Mechanisms of Energy Storage Cells 1276.14 Operational Models of Sulfide Based Cells 1326.15 Storage Solely in Bulk Electrolyte 1346.16 More on Storage of Reagents in Adsorbed State 1376.17 Energy Density 1406.18 Observations Regarding Electrical Behavior 1416.19 Concluding Comments 1436.20 Typical Performance Characteristics 1456.21 Sulfide/Sulfur Half Cell Balance 1456.22 General Cell Attributes 1466.23 Electrolyte Information 1466.24 Concentration Cell Mechanism and Associated Mathematics 1496.25 Calculated Performance Data 1506.26 Another S/S−2 Cell Balance Analysis Method 1536.27 A Different Example of a Concentration Cell, Fe+2/ Fe+3 1556.28 Performance Calculations Based on Nernst Potentials 1566.28.1 Constant Current Discharge 1576.28.2 Constant Power Discharge 1586.29 Empirical Data 1607 Thermodynamics of Concentration Cells 1637.1 Thermodynamic Background 1637.2 The CIR Cell 1668 Polysulfide – Diffusion Analysis 1758.1 Polarization Voltages and Thermodynamics 1768.2 Diffusion and Transport Processes at the (−) Electrode Surface 1778.3 Electrode Surface Properties, Holes, and Pores 1798.4 Electric (Ionic) Current Density Estimates 1838.5 Diffusion and Supply of Reagents 1848.6 Cell Dynamics 1868.6.1 Electrode Processes Analyses 1868.6.2 Polymeric Number Change 1868.7 Further Analysis of Electrode Behavior 1988.7.1 Flat Electrode with Some Storage Properties 1988.8 Assessing the Values of Reagent Concentrations 2068.9 Solving the Differential Equations 2078.10 Cell and Negative Electrode Performance Analysis 2198.11 General Comments 2259 Design Considerations 2279.1 Examination of Diffusion and Reaction Rates and Cell Design 2279.2 Electrodes 2289.3 Physical Spacing in Cell Designs 2299.3.1 Electrode Structures 2299.4 Carbon-Polymer Composite Electrodes 2339.4.1 Particle Shapes and Sizes 2359.4.2 Metal to Carbon Resistance 2359.4.3 Cell Spacing 2369.5 Resistance Measurements in Test Cells 2379.6 Electrolytes and Membranes 2399.7 Energy and Power Density Compromises 2409.8 Overcharging Effects on Cells 2449.9 Imbalance Considerations 24410 Electrolytes, Separators, and Membranes 24510.1 Electrolyte Classifications 24610.2 Ionic Conductivity 24710.2.1 Measurement Techniques 24710.2.2 Nyquist Plot Circuit Fitting 24910.3 Ion Conduction Theory 25110.3.1 Ion Conduction in Liquid Electrolytes 25210.3.2 Ion Conduction in Polymer Electrolytes 25610.3.3 Ion Conduction in Ceramic Electrolytes 26010.4 Factors Affecting Ion Conductivity 26210.5 Transference Number 26310.6 Electrolytes for Lithium Ion Batteries 26410.6.1 Liquid Electrolytes 26410.6.1.1 Non-Aqueous Electrolytes 26410.6.1.2 Aqueous Electrolytes 26810.6.2 Solid and Quasi-Solid Electrolytes 27010.6.2.1 Polymer Electrolytes 27010.6.2.2 Ceramic Electrolytes 27210.7 Electrolytes for Supercapacitors 27210.8 Electrolytes for Fuel Cells 27610.9 Fillers and Additives 28211 Single Cell Empirical Data 28311.1 Design and Construction of Cells and the Materials Employed 28311.2 Experimental Data 28712 Conclusions and Future Trends 28912.1 Future of Energy Storage 28912.2 Flexible and Stretchable Energy Storage Devices 29012.3 Self-Charging Energy Storage Devices 29412.4 Recovering Wasted Energy 29512.5 Recycling Energy Storage Devices 29812.6 New Chemistry for Electrochemical Cells 30012.7 Non-Electrochemical Energy Storage 30112.8 Concentration Cells 30212.8.1 Pros and Cons of Concentration Cells 30312.8.2 Future Performance and Limitations 304Appendix 1 307Appendix 2 323Bibliography 335Index 341