Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev, PhD, is the Chief Research Scientist at the Institute of Basic Biological Problems (IBBP), Russian Academy of Sciences. He is on the editorial boards of the International Journal of Hydrogen Energy and The Open Structural Biology Journal and has been a guest editor on four other journals. He has authored or co-authored over 300 papers in various scholarly journals and holds 11 patents. He has been working as a visiting professor in over 30 countries and has presented papers at more than 70 international and national conferences.?He has also organized two international conferences on photosynthesis.

• Preface xiiiList of Contributors xvii1 The Multiple Roles of Various Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Photosynthetic Organisms 1Franz-Josef Schmitt, Vladimir D. Kreslavski, Sergey K. Zharmukhamedov, Th omas Friedrich, Gernot Renger, Dmitry A. Los, Vladimir V. Kuznetsov and Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev1.1 Introduction 21.2 Generation, Decay and Deleterious Action of ROS 71.3 Non-photochemical Quenching in Plants and Cyanobacteria 151.4 Monitoring of ROS 191.4.1 Exogenous ROS Sensors 201.4.2 Genetically Encoded ROS Sensors 251.4.3 Chromophore-Assisted Laser Inactivation (CALI) 281.5 Signaling Role of ROS 301.5.1 Signaling by Superoxide and Hydrogen Peroxide in Cyanobacteria 371.5.2 Signaling by 1ΔgO2 and Hydrogen Peroxide in Eukaryotic Cells and Plants 411.6 Light-Induced ROS and Cell Redox Control and Interaction with the Nuclear Gene Expression 451.7 Second Messengers and Signaling Molecules in H2O2 Signaling Chains and (Nonlinear) Networking 491.8 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 55Acknowledgments 56Abbreviations 57References 582 Photooxidation of Mn-bicarbonate Complexes by Reaction Centers of Purple Bacteria as a Possible Stage in the Evolutionary Origin of the Water-Oxidizing Complex of Photosystem II 85Vasily V. Terentyev, Andrey A. Khorobrykh and Vyacheslav V. Klimov2.1 Introduction 862.2 Appearance of Photosynthesis 872.3 Classification of Photosynthetic Bacteria 882.4 Mechanism of Light Energy Transformation during Photosynthesis 902.5 The Water-oxidizing Complex of Photosystem II 922.6 Localization and Function of Bicarbonate in Photosystem II 952.7 Composition and Electrochemical Properties of Mn2+-bicarbonate Complexes 1002.8 A Possible Role of Mn2+-bicarbonate Complexes for the Origin and Evolution of the Inorganic Core of the Water-oxidizing Complex of Photosystem II 1042.9 Investigation of Redox Interaction Between Mn2+ and Type II Reaction Centers of Anoxygenic Photosynthetic Bacteria in the Presence of Bicarbonate 1072.10 Influence of the Redox Potential of the Р+/Р Pair and Steric Accessibility of P+ on Electron Donationfrom Mn2+ to Type II Reaction Centers from Anoxygenic Photosynthetic Bacteria in the Presence of Bicarbonate 1132.11 Conclusions 121Acknowledgments 122Abbreviations 122References 1233 Hydrogen Metabolism in Microalgae 133Anatoly A. Tsygankov, Azat Abdullatypov3.1 Introduction 1333.2 Physiology of Hydrogen Metabolism 1343.3 Hydrogenases 1363.4 Ferredoxin 139Contents ix3.5 Nutrient Deprivation 1403.6 Physiological Significance of Light-Dependent Hydrogen Production 1463.7 Practical Importance of Hydrogen Photoproduction 1473.8 Towards Practical Application of Microalgal Hydrogen Production 1513.8.1 Hydrogenase Modifications 1513.8.2 Elimination of Routes Competitive to H2 production 1523.8.3 The Role of Transmembrane Gradient of the Potential 1533.9 Conclusion 154Acknowledgements 154Abbreviations 154References 1554 The Structure and Regulation of Chloroplast ATP Synthase 163Alexander N. Malyan4.1 Introduction 1634.2 The Structure and Functional Basics of Chloroplast ATP Synthase 1644.3 The Thiol-Dependent Mechanism of Chloroplast ATP Synthase Regulation 1664.4 The Nucleotide-Dependent Mechanism of Chloroplast ATP Synthase Regulation 1674.5 The Properties and the Role of Chloroplast ATPase Noncatalytic Sites 1684.6 Conclusion 173Abbreviations 173References 1735 Structural and Functional Organization of the Pigment-Protein Complexes of the Photosystems in Mutant Cells of Green Algae and Higher Plants 179Vladimir G. Ladygin5.1 Introduction 1805.2 The Mutants as Model Objects 1825.2.1 Effects of Mutagenic Agents 1825.2.2 Obtaining Mutants 1825.3 The Chlorophyll-Protein Complexes 1855.3.1 Pigment Content of Individual Complexes 1855.3.2 Identification of Chlorophyll-Protein Complexes 1885.3.3 Polypeptide Composition of Individual Complexes 1885.4 Spectral Properties of Native Chlorophyll-Protein Complexes 1895.4.1 Spectral Forms of Chlorophyll in Native Complexes 1895.4.2 Fluorescence Spectra of the Chlorophyll in Native Complexes 1905.5 Functional Organization of the Photosystems 1955.5.1 Photosynthetic Activity 1955.5.2 The Value of Photosynthetic Unit 1975.5.3 The Number of the Reaction Centers of Photosystems 1975.6 Structural Localization of the Photosystem in Chloroplast Thylakoids 2015.6.1 Spatial Localization of the Photosystem in Thylakoid Membranes 2015.6.2 Localization of Carotenoids in Pigment-Protein Complexes of the Photosystems 2105.7 Molecular Organization of the Complexes of Photosystem I and II 2135.7.1 Structure of the Complex of Photosystem I 2135.7.2 Structure of the Complex of Photosystem II 2175.7.3 The Core Complex of Photosystem II 220Abbreviations 222References 2226 Photosynthetic Carbon Metabolism: Strategy of Adaptation over Evolutionary History 233Irina R. Fomina and Karl Y. Biel6.1 Introduction 2346.2 Photosynthesis in Prokaryotes 2356.2.1 What Was the First Autotroph on Our Planet? 2356.2.2 Green Non-Sulfur Bacteria, Green Sulfur Bacteria, Heliobacteria: from the Archaic Way of Carbon Reduction to the Arnon-Buchanan Cycle 2406.2.3 Purple Bacteria: The Emergence of the Reductive Pentose Phosphate Cycle – Biochemical “Add-ons” to the Arnon-Buchanan Cycle 2456.2.4 Cyanobacteria: The Reductive Pentose Phosphate Cycle Becomes the Main Path of Carbon in Photosynthesis 2476.2.5 The Main Stages of Development of Photosynthetic Carbon Metabolism in Prokaryotes 2496.3 Photosynthesis in Eukaryotes 2506.3.1 C3 plants: Photosynthesis via the Reductive Pentose Phosphate or Benson-Bassham-Calvin cycle 2506.3.2 C4 plants: Cooperative Photosynthesis 2546.3.3 CAM-plants: Crassulacean Acid Metabolism 2596.3.4 C4-CAM plants: Cooperation of the Second Order 2626.4 About Compartmentalization and Cooperation between the Reduction and Oxidation Reactions in Photosynthetic Cells 2646.5 Examples of Physiological Adaptation of Photosynthetic Carbon Metabolism to Environmental Factors at the Cellular, Tissue, and Organism Levels 2666.5.1 Cooperative Relationship of Phototrophic Endosymbionts and Heterotrophic Host Cells with Carbon Assimilation 2666.5.2 The Protective Role of Leaf Tissues in Illuminated Plants 2836.6 General Conclusion 293Acknowledgements 297Abbreviations 297References 2987 Adaptive Changes of Photosynthetic Apparatus to Higher CO2 Concentration 327Anatoly A. Kosobryukhov7.1 Introduction 3277.2 Higher Concentration of CO2 and Its Effect on the Plants: History of the Question 3287.3 Influence of the Higher CO2 Concentration on the Growth and Productivity of the Plants 3297.4 Photosynthesis at Short-Term Increase of CO2 Concentration 3317.5 Adaptive Changes of Photosynthetic Apparatus at Long-Term Effect of the Higher CO2 Concentration 3327.6 The Role of Carbohydrate Metabolism in Regulation of the Photosynthetic Apparatus Activity at Increased CO2 Concentration 3347.7 Soluble Sugars in Leaves and Other Plant Organs 3377.8 Dependence of Photosynthetic Rate on Environmental Factors and its Regulation 338Abbreviations 344References 3448 Photosynthetic Machinery Response to Low Temperature Stress 355Evgenia F. Markovskaya, Anatoly A. Kosobryukhov and Vladimir D. Kreslavski8.1 Mechanisms of Plant Adaptation to Low Temperature 3558.2 Role of Reactive Oxygen Species 3578.3 Plant Cell Membranes and Their Role in Response to Low Temperature 3588.4 Hormonal Response to the Temperature 3628.5 Phytochrome as a Receptor of Low Temperature 3628.6 Carbohydrate Function under Low Temperature 3648.7 Protein Changes 3658.8 Cold Stress and Photoinhibition 3678.9 Molecular Mechanisms of Plants’ Response to Low Temperatures 3688.10 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 370Acknowledgments 370References 370Index 383

Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev, PhD, is the Chief Research Scientist at the Institute of Basic Biological Problems (IBBP), Russian Academy of Sciences. He is on the editorial boards of the International Journal of Hydrogen Energy and The Open Structural Biology Journal and has been a guest editor on four other journals. He has authored or co-authored over 300 papers in various scholarly journals and holds 11 patents. He has been working as a visiting professor in over 30 countries and has presented papers at more than 70 international and national conferences.?He has also organized two international conferences on photosynthesis.

• Preface xiiiList of Contributors xvii1 The Multiple Roles of Various Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Photosynthetic Organisms 1Franz-Josef Schmitt, Vladimir D. Kreslavski, Sergey K. Zharmukhamedov, Th omas Friedrich, Gernot Renger, Dmitry A. Los, Vladimir V. Kuznetsov and Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev1.1 Introduction 21.2 Generation, Decay and Deleterious Action of ROS 71.3 Non-photochemical Quenching in Plants and Cyanobacteria 151.4 Monitoring of ROS 191.4.1 Exogenous ROS Sensors 201.4.2 Genetically Encoded ROS Sensors 251.4.3 Chromophore-Assisted Laser Inactivation (CALI) 281.5 Signaling Role of ROS 301.5.1 Signaling by Superoxide and Hydrogen Peroxide in Cyanobacteria 371.5.2 Signaling by 1ΔgO2 and Hydrogen Peroxide in Eukaryotic Cells and Plants 411.6 Light-Induced ROS and Cell Redox Control and Interaction with the Nuclear Gene Expression 451.7 Second Messengers and Signaling Molecules in H2O2 Signaling Chains and (Nonlinear) Networking 491.8 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 55Acknowledgments 56Abbreviations 57References 582 Photooxidation of Mn-bicarbonate Complexes by Reaction Centers of Purple Bacteria as a Possible Stage in the Evolutionary Origin of the Water-Oxidizing Complex of Photosystem II 85Vasily V. Terentyev, Andrey A. Khorobrykh and Vyacheslav V. Klimov2.1 Introduction 862.2 Appearance of Photosynthesis 872.3 Classification of Photosynthetic Bacteria 882.4 Mechanism of Light Energy Transformation during Photosynthesis 902.5 The Water-oxidizing Complex of Photosystem II 922.6 Localization and Function of Bicarbonate in Photosystem II 952.7 Composition and Electrochemical Properties of Mn2+-bicarbonate Complexes 1002.8 A Possible Role of Mn2+-bicarbonate Complexes for the Origin and Evolution of the Inorganic Core of the Water-oxidizing Complex of Photosystem II 1042.9 Investigation of Redox Interaction Between Mn2+ and Type II Reaction Centers of Anoxygenic Photosynthetic Bacteria in the Presence of Bicarbonate 1072.10 Influence of the Redox Potential of the Р+/Р Pair and Steric Accessibility of P+ on Electron Donationfrom Mn2+ to Type II Reaction Centers from Anoxygenic Photosynthetic Bacteria in the Presence of Bicarbonate 1132.11 Conclusions 121Acknowledgments 122Abbreviations 122References 1233 Hydrogen Metabolism in Microalgae 133Anatoly A. Tsygankov, Azat Abdullatypov3.1 Introduction 1333.2 Physiology of Hydrogen Metabolism 1343.3 Hydrogenases 1363.4 Ferredoxin 139Contents ix3.5 Nutrient Deprivation 1403.6 Physiological Significance of Light-Dependent Hydrogen Production 1463.7 Practical Importance of Hydrogen Photoproduction 1473.8 Towards Practical Application of Microalgal Hydrogen Production 1513.8.1 Hydrogenase Modifications 1513.8.2 Elimination of Routes Competitive to H2 production 1523.8.3 The Role of Transmembrane Gradient of the Potential 1533.9 Conclusion 154Acknowledgements 154Abbreviations 154References 1554 The Structure and Regulation of Chloroplast ATP Synthase 163Alexander N. Malyan4.1 Introduction 1634.2 The Structure and Functional Basics of Chloroplast ATP Synthase 1644.3 The Thiol-Dependent Mechanism of Chloroplast ATP Synthase Regulation 1664.4 The Nucleotide-Dependent Mechanism of Chloroplast ATP Synthase Regulation 1674.5 The Properties and the Role of Chloroplast ATPase Noncatalytic Sites 1684.6 Conclusion 173Abbreviations 173References 1735 Structural and Functional Organization of the Pigment-Protein Complexes of the Photosystems in Mutant Cells of Green Algae and Higher Plants 179Vladimir G. Ladygin5.1 Introduction 1805.2 The Mutants as Model Objects 1825.2.1 Effects of Mutagenic Agents 1825.2.2 Obtaining Mutants 1825.3 The Chlorophyll-Protein Complexes 1855.3.1 Pigment Content of Individual Complexes 1855.3.2 Identification of Chlorophyll-Protein Complexes 1885.3.3 Polypeptide Composition of Individual Complexes 1885.4 Spectral Properties of Native Chlorophyll-Protein Complexes 1895.4.1 Spectral Forms of Chlorophyll in Native Complexes 1895.4.2 Fluorescence Spectra of the Chlorophyll in Native Complexes 1905.5 Functional Organization of the Photosystems 1955.5.1 Photosynthetic Activity 1955.5.2 The Value of Photosynthetic Unit 1975.5.3 The Number of the Reaction Centers of Photosystems 1975.6 Structural Localization of the Photosystem in Chloroplast Thylakoids 2015.6.1 Spatial Localization of the Photosystem in Thylakoid Membranes 2015.6.2 Localization of Carotenoids in Pigment-Protein Complexes of the Photosystems 2105.7 Molecular Organization of the Complexes of Photosystem I and II 2135.7.1 Structure of the Complex of Photosystem I 2135.7.2 Structure of the Complex of Photosystem II 2175.7.3 The Core Complex of Photosystem II 220Abbreviations 222References 2226 Photosynthetic Carbon Metabolism: Strategy of Adaptation over Evolutionary History 233Irina R. Fomina and Karl Y. Biel6.1 Introduction 2346.2 Photosynthesis in Prokaryotes 2356.2.1 What Was the First Autotroph on Our Planet? 2356.2.2 Green Non-Sulfur Bacteria, Green Sulfur Bacteria, Heliobacteria: from the Archaic Way of Carbon Reduction to the Arnon-Buchanan Cycle 2406.2.3 Purple Bacteria: The Emergence of the Reductive Pentose Phosphate Cycle – Biochemical “Add-ons” to the Arnon-Buchanan Cycle 2456.2.4 Cyanobacteria: The Reductive Pentose Phosphate Cycle Becomes the Main Path of Carbon in Photosynthesis 2476.2.5 The Main Stages of Development of Photosynthetic Carbon Metabolism in Prokaryotes 2496.3 Photosynthesis in Eukaryotes 2506.3.1 C3 plants: Photosynthesis via the Reductive Pentose Phosphate or Benson-Bassham-Calvin cycle 2506.3.2 C4 plants: Cooperative Photosynthesis 2546.3.3 CAM-plants: Crassulacean Acid Metabolism 2596.3.4 C4-CAM plants: Cooperation of the Second Order 2626.4 About Compartmentalization and Cooperation between the Reduction and Oxidation Reactions in Photosynthetic Cells 2646.5 Examples of Physiological Adaptation of Photosynthetic Carbon Metabolism to Environmental Factors at the Cellular, Tissue, and Organism Levels 2666.5.1 Cooperative Relationship of Phototrophic Endosymbionts and Heterotrophic Host Cells with Carbon Assimilation 2666.5.2 The Protective Role of Leaf Tissues in Illuminated Plants 2836.6 General Conclusion 293Acknowledgements 297Abbreviations 297References 2987 Adaptive Changes of Photosynthetic Apparatus to Higher CO2 Concentration 327Anatoly A. Kosobryukhov7.1 Introduction 3277.2 Higher Concentration of CO2 and Its Effect on the Plants: History of the Question 3287.3 Influence of the Higher CO2 Concentration on the Growth and Productivity of the Plants 3297.4 Photosynthesis at Short-Term Increase of CO2 Concentration 3317.5 Adaptive Changes of Photosynthetic Apparatus at Long-Term Effect of the Higher CO2 Concentration 3327.6 The Role of Carbohydrate Metabolism in Regulation of the Photosynthetic Apparatus Activity at Increased CO2 Concentration 3347.7 Soluble Sugars in Leaves and Other Plant Organs 3377.8 Dependence of Photosynthetic Rate on Environmental Factors and its Regulation 338Abbreviations 344References 3448 Photosynthetic Machinery Response to Low Temperature Stress 355Evgenia F. Markovskaya, Anatoly A. Kosobryukhov and Vladimir D. Kreslavski8.1 Mechanisms of Plant Adaptation to Low Temperature 3558.2 Role of Reactive Oxygen Species 3578.3 Plant Cell Membranes and Their Role in Response to Low Temperature 3588.4 Hormonal Response to the Temperature 3628.5 Phytochrome as a Receptor of Low Temperature 3628.6 Carbohydrate Function under Low Temperature 3648.7 Protein Changes 3658.8 Cold Stress and Photoinhibition 3678.9 Molecular Mechanisms of Plants’ Response to Low Temperatures 3688.10 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 370Acknowledgments 370References 370Index 383

Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev, PhD, is the Chief Research Scientist at the Institute of Basic Biological Problems (IBBP), Russian Academy of Sciences. He is on the editorial boards of the International Journal of Hydrogen Energy and The Open Structural Biology Journal and has been a guest editor on four other journals. He has authored or co-authored over 300 papers in various scholarly journals and holds 11 patents. He has been working as a visiting professor in over 30 countries and has presented papers at more than 70 international and national conferences.?He has also organized two international conferences on photosynthesis.

• Preface xiiiList of Contributors xvii1 The Multiple Roles of Various Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Photosynthetic Organisms 1Franz-Josef Schmitt, Vladimir D. Kreslavski, Sergey K. Zharmukhamedov, Th omas Friedrich, Gernot Renger, Dmitry A. Los, Vladimir V. Kuznetsov and Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev1.1 Introduction 21.2 Generation, Decay and Deleterious Action of ROS 71.3 Non-photochemical Quenching in Plants and Cyanobacteria 151.4 Monitoring of ROS 191.4.1 Exogenous ROS Sensors 201.4.2 Genetically Encoded ROS Sensors 251.4.3 Chromophore-Assisted Laser Inactivation (CALI) 281.5 Signaling Role of ROS 301.5.1 Signaling by Superoxide and Hydrogen Peroxide in Cyanobacteria 371.5.2 Signaling by 1ΔgO2 and Hydrogen Peroxide in Eukaryotic Cells and Plants 411.6 Light-Induced ROS and Cell Redox Control and Interaction with the Nuclear Gene Expression 451.7 Second Messengers and Signaling Molecules in H2O2 Signaling Chains and (Nonlinear) Networking 491.8 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 55Acknowledgments 56Abbreviations 57References 582 Photooxidation of Mn-bicarbonate Complexes by Reaction Centers of Purple Bacteria as a Possible Stage in the Evolutionary Origin of the Water-Oxidizing Complex of Photosystem II 85Vasily V. Terentyev, Andrey A. Khorobrykh and Vyacheslav V. Klimov2.1 Introduction 862.2 Appearance of Photosynthesis 872.3 Classification of Photosynthetic Bacteria 882.4 Mechanism of Light Energy Transformation during Photosynthesis 902.5 The Water-oxidizing Complex of Photosystem II 922.6 Localization and Function of Bicarbonate in Photosystem II 952.7 Composition and Electrochemical Properties of Mn2+-bicarbonate Complexes 1002.8 A Possible Role of Mn2+-bicarbonate Complexes for the Origin and Evolution of the Inorganic Core of the Water-oxidizing Complex of Photosystem II 1042.9 Investigation of Redox Interaction Between Mn2+ and Type II Reaction Centers of Anoxygenic Photosynthetic Bacteria in the Presence of Bicarbonate 1072.10 Influence of the Redox Potential of the Р+/Р Pair and Steric Accessibility of P+ on Electron Donationfrom Mn2+ to Type II Reaction Centers from Anoxygenic Photosynthetic Bacteria in the Presence of Bicarbonate 1132.11 Conclusions 121Acknowledgments 122Abbreviations 122References 1233 Hydrogen Metabolism in Microalgae 133Anatoly A. Tsygankov, Azat Abdullatypov3.1 Introduction 1333.2 Physiology of Hydrogen Metabolism 1343.3 Hydrogenases 1363.4 Ferredoxin 139Contents ix3.5 Nutrient Deprivation 1403.6 Physiological Significance of Light-Dependent Hydrogen Production 1463.7 Practical Importance of Hydrogen Photoproduction 1473.8 Towards Practical Application of Microalgal Hydrogen Production 1513.8.1 Hydrogenase Modifications 1513.8.2 Elimination of Routes Competitive to H2 production 1523.8.3 The Role of Transmembrane Gradient of the Potential 1533.9 Conclusion 154Acknowledgements 154Abbreviations 154References 1554 The Structure and Regulation of Chloroplast ATP Synthase 163Alexander N. Malyan4.1 Introduction 1634.2 The Structure and Functional Basics of Chloroplast ATP Synthase 1644.3 The Thiol-Dependent Mechanism of Chloroplast ATP Synthase Regulation 1664.4 The Nucleotide-Dependent Mechanism of Chloroplast ATP Synthase Regulation 1674.5 The Properties and the Role of Chloroplast ATPase Noncatalytic Sites 1684.6 Conclusion 173Abbreviations 173References 1735 Structural and Functional Organization of the Pigment-Protein Complexes of the Photosystems in Mutant Cells of Green Algae and Higher Plants 179Vladimir G. Ladygin5.1 Introduction 1805.2 The Mutants as Model Objects 1825.2.1 Effects of Mutagenic Agents 1825.2.2 Obtaining Mutants 1825.3 The Chlorophyll-Protein Complexes 1855.3.1 Pigment Content of Individual Complexes 1855.3.2 Identification of Chlorophyll-Protein Complexes 1885.3.3 Polypeptide Composition of Individual Complexes 1885.4 Spectral Properties of Native Chlorophyll-Protein Complexes 1895.4.1 Spectral Forms of Chlorophyll in Native Complexes 1895.4.2 Fluorescence Spectra of the Chlorophyll in Native Complexes 1905.5 Functional Organization of the Photosystems 1955.5.1 Photosynthetic Activity 1955.5.2 The Value of Photosynthetic Unit 1975.5.3 The Number of the Reaction Centers of Photosystems 1975.6 Structural Localization of the Photosystem in Chloroplast Thylakoids 2015.6.1 Spatial Localization of the Photosystem in Thylakoid Membranes 2015.6.2 Localization of Carotenoids in Pigment-Protein Complexes of the Photosystems 2105.7 Molecular Organization of the Complexes of Photosystem I and II 2135.7.1 Structure of the Complex of Photosystem I 2135.7.2 Structure of the Complex of Photosystem II 2175.7.3 The Core Complex of Photosystem II 220Abbreviations 222References 2226 Photosynthetic Carbon Metabolism: Strategy of Adaptation over Evolutionary History 233Irina R. Fomina and Karl Y. Biel6.1 Introduction 2346.2 Photosynthesis in Prokaryotes 2356.2.1 What Was the First Autotroph on Our Planet? 2356.2.2 Green Non-Sulfur Bacteria, Green Sulfur Bacteria, Heliobacteria: from the Archaic Way of Carbon Reduction to the Arnon-Buchanan Cycle 2406.2.3 Purple Bacteria: The Emergence of the Reductive Pentose Phosphate Cycle – Biochemical “Add-ons” to the Arnon-Buchanan Cycle 2456.2.4 Cyanobacteria: The Reductive Pentose Phosphate Cycle Becomes the Main Path of Carbon in Photosynthesis 2476.2.5 The Main Stages of Development of Photosynthetic Carbon Metabolism in Prokaryotes 2496.3 Photosynthesis in Eukaryotes 2506.3.1 C3 plants: Photosynthesis via the Reductive Pentose Phosphate or Benson-Bassham-Calvin cycle 2506.3.2 C4 plants: Cooperative Photosynthesis 2546.3.3 CAM-plants: Crassulacean Acid Metabolism 2596.3.4 C4-CAM plants: Cooperation of the Second Order 2626.4 About Compartmentalization and Cooperation between the Reduction and Oxidation Reactions in Photosynthetic Cells 2646.5 Examples of Physiological Adaptation of Photosynthetic Carbon Metabolism to Environmental Factors at the Cellular, Tissue, and Organism Levels 2666.5.1 Cooperative Relationship of Phototrophic Endosymbionts and Heterotrophic Host Cells with Carbon Assimilation 2666.5.2 The Protective Role of Leaf Tissues in Illuminated Plants 2836.6 General Conclusion 293Acknowledgements 297Abbreviations 297References 2987 Adaptive Changes of Photosynthetic Apparatus to Higher CO2 Concentration 327Anatoly A. Kosobryukhov7.1 Introduction 3277.2 Higher Concentration of CO2 and Its Effect on the Plants: History of the Question 3287.3 Influence of the Higher CO2 Concentration on the Growth and Productivity of the Plants 3297.4 Photosynthesis at Short-Term Increase of CO2 Concentration 3317.5 Adaptive Changes of Photosynthetic Apparatus at Long-Term Effect of the Higher CO2 Concentration 3327.6 The Role of Carbohydrate Metabolism in Regulation of the Photosynthetic Apparatus Activity at Increased CO2 Concentration 3347.7 Soluble Sugars in Leaves and Other Plant Organs 3377.8 Dependence of Photosynthetic Rate on Environmental Factors and its Regulation 338Abbreviations 344References 3448 Photosynthetic Machinery Response to Low Temperature Stress 355Evgenia F. Markovskaya, Anatoly A. Kosobryukhov and Vladimir D. Kreslavski8.1 Mechanisms of Plant Adaptation to Low Temperature 3558.2 Role of Reactive Oxygen Species 3578.3 Plant Cell Membranes and Their Role in Response to Low Temperature 3588.4 Hormonal Response to the Temperature 3628.5 Phytochrome as a Receptor of Low Temperature 3628.6 Carbohydrate Function under Low Temperature 3648.7 Protein Changes 3658.8 Cold Stress and Photoinhibition 3678.9 Molecular Mechanisms of Plants’ Response to Low Temperatures 3688.10 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 370Acknowledgments 370References 370Index 383