HELEN LINGARD, PHD, is RMIT Distinguished Professor in construction work health and safety. She leads the Construction Work Health and Safety @ RMIT research group in the School of Property, Construction and Project Management, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. RON WAKEFIELD, PHD, is Professor of Construction, Dean, School of Property, Construction and Project Management and Deputy Pro-Vice Chancellor – International in the Design and Social Context Portfolio, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia.

• Preface xi1 The State of Work Health and Safety in Construction 11.1 The Construction Safety Problem 11.2 The Neglect of Occupational Health 61.3 The Evolution of Workplace Safety 71.4 An Integrated Approach to WHS in Construction 101.4.1 Fragmented Supply Arrangements 101.4.2 Flexible Labour Processes and Precarious Employment 121.4.3 Cultural Characteristics of the Construction Industry 131.5 Structure of the Book 14Discussion and Review Questions 162 The Client’s Role in Improving Workplace Health and Safety 17Helen Lingard, Nick Blismas, Tiendung Le, David Oswald, and James Harley2.1 Can Clients Influence Construction Workers’ Health and Safety? 172.2 The Role of Governments as Policy Makers and Major Purchasers 192.3 The Model Client Framework 202.3.1 Principle 1: Develop a Project Culture that Enables WHS 202.3.2 Principle 2: Leadership and Commitment 212.3.3 Principle 3: Develop Cooperative Relationships 212.3.4 Principle 4: Promote WHS in Planning and Design 212.3.5 Principle 5: Consult with and Communicate WHS Information to Project Stakeholders 212.3.6 Principle 6: Manage WHS Risks and Hazards 222.3.7 Principle 7: Maintain Effective WHS Measures Across the Project Lifecycle 222.3.8 Principle 8: Monitor and Evaluate WHS Performance 222.4 The Model Client Project Process Map 292.5 WHS and Price Competition 342.6 Project Commercial Frameworks and WHS 362.6.1 Choice of Contracting Strategy 372.6.2 Financial Incentive Mechanisms 402.7 The Potential for Unintended Consequences of Client WHS Activity 422.8 The Overriding Importance of Relationships 452.9 Conclusions 45Discussion and Review Questions 46Acknowledgements 463 Designing Safe and Healthy Products and Processes 47Helen Lingard, Nick Blismas, and Payam Pirzadeh3.1 Safety in Design 473.2 The Case for Safety in Design 473.3 How Important Is Design as a Cause of Construction Incidents? 493.4 The Policy Response 523.5 Challenges Inherent in Safety in Design 543.5.1 Sociotechnical Complexity 543.5.2 Vertical Segregation 573.5.3 Confusion Between Product and Process Design 573.5.4 Knowledge Issues 583.5.5 Oversimplified Assumptions 593.6 The Case for Integration 613.6.1 Early and Effective Consideration of Safety in Design 613.6.2 Integrating Process and Product Knowledge 643.7 Integrating Mechanisms 683.7.1 Collaborative Project Delivery Mechanisms 683.7.2 Sharing Knowledge 683.7.3 Infographics and Visual Communication 693.8 Conclusions 71Discussion and Review Questions 72Acknowledgement 724 Construction Workers’ Health 73Helen Lingard and Michelle Turner4.1 Introduction 734.1.1 A Neglected Issue 734.1.2 An Integrated Approach to Managing Workers’ Health 744.2 Work and Health 774.3 Organizational Issues and the Design of Work 794.4 Workplace Risk Factors 804.4.1 Musculoskeletal Disorders 804.4.2 Noise 804.4.3 Chemicals 804.4.4 Airborne Hazards 814.4.5 Emerging Hazards 834.4.6 Psychosocial Hazards 844.5 The Management of Occupational Health 844.6 The Health of Construction Workers 864.6.1 The Health Profile of Construction Workers 864.6.2 Mental Health 894.6.3 Resilience 904.6.4 Suicide 904.7 The Need to Understand Health Behaviour in Context 924.7.1 Ecological Approach to Health 924.7.2 Interaction Between Work and Family 954.7.3 Masculine Work Cultures 964.7.4 Work Ability and Work–Life Fit 964.7.5 Health and Work Ability 964.8 Organizational Responses to Support Health 974.9 Conclusions 102Discussion and Review Questions 102Acknowledgements 1025 Cultures that Enable Work Health and Safety 105Helen Lingard, Rita Peihua Zhang, Nick Blismas, and James Harley5.1 A Culture of Health and Safety 1055.2 What Is Culture and Why Is It Important? 1065.3 Problems Inherent in the Term ‘Safety Culture’ 1065.4 Organizational Culture as an Enabler of Safety 1085.5 Different Approaches to Understanding Cultural Influences on Health and Safety 1095.6 Multiple Layers of Organizational Culture 1105.7 Understanding Cultural Influences on Health and Safety 1125.7.1 Rethink the Way Culture Influences Health and Safety 1125.7.2 Understand Culture as a Layered Phenomenon 1125.7.3 Adopt a Multimethod Approach 1135.7.4 Appreciate Culture as a Differentiated Concept 1135.8 The Australian Constructors Association’s Cultural Maturity Model 1135.8.1 Component 1: Leadership 1145.8.2 Component 2: Communication 1165.8.3 Component 3: Organizational Goals and Values 1185.8.4 Component 4: Supportive Environment 1185.8.5 Component 5: Responsibility, Authority, and Accountability 1205.8.6 Component 6: Learning 1215.8.7 Component 7: Trust in People and Systems 1245.8.8 Component 8: Resilience 1255.8.9 Component 9: Engagement 1265.9 The Organizational Culture Maturity Continuum 1275.10 Conclusions 129Discussion and Review Questions 141Acknowledgements 1416 Understanding and Applying Health and Safety Metrics 143Helen Lingard, Rita Peihua Zhang, Payam Pirzadeh, and Nick Blismas6.1 The Measurement Problem 1436.2 Why Measure Work Health and Safety Performance? 1446.3 Different Types of Performance Indicator 1446.4 Lag Indicators 1456.5 Alternative Indicators 1476.6 What Leads and What Lags? 1486.7 Safety Climate Measurement 1516.7.1 Assumptions About Uniformity 1526.7.2 Assumptions About Stability 1546.7.3 Safety Climate Types 1556.7.4 The Need to Understand Safety Climate in the Social Context in Which It Occurs 1566.8 Safety in Design Metrics 1576.9 Classifying Health and Safety Risk Controls Based on Their Effectiveness 1586.9.1 Step 1: Identifying Relevant ‘Features of Work’ 1586.9.2 Step 2: Identifying Construction Activities and Tasks with Work Health and Safety Implications 1586.9.3 Step 3: Categorizing Hazards Associated with the Construction Activities 1586.9.4 Step 4: Identifying Risk Control Options for Each of the Hazards 1596.9.5 Step 5: Classifying and Scoring the Risk Controls Using the HOC 1596.10 Using HOC Method for Comparison 1666.11 Conclusions 169Discussion and Review Questions 170Acknowledgements 1717 Managing Work Health and Safety: Rethinking Rules and Worker Engagement 173Helen Lingard, and James Harley7.1 Introduction 1737.1.1 Managing Work Health and Safety 1737.1.2 Contrasting Viewpoints About How to Achieve WHS 1747.2 What Is Human Error? 1767.3 Human Error Types 1777.4 Active Errors and Latent Conditions 1797.5 Human Error – A Cause or Symptom of Failure? 1817.6 Rules as a Means of Controlling Behaviour 1827.7 Rule Violations 1837.8 Why Do People Break the Rules? 1847.9 The Importance of Rule Management 1887.10 Conclusions 195Discussion and Review Questions 196Acknowledgements 1968 An Integrated Approach to Reducing the Risk of Work‐Related Musculoskeletal Disorders 197Helen Lingard8.1 Introduction 1978.2 The Prevalence of WMSDs in Construction 1988.3 Risk Factors for WMSDs 1998.3.1 Steel Reinforcement Fixing 2008.3.2 Concreting/Screeding 2018.3.3 Floor Laying 2018.3.4 Mechanical and Electrical System Installation 2028.3.5 Plant Operating 2028.3.6 Masonry 2038.4 Psychosocial Work Stressors and WMSD 2038.5 Cultural Influences 2068.6 Ergonomic Interventions in Construction 2078.7 Designing for Reduced WMSDs 2108.8 Measuring the Risk of WMSDs 2128.9 Participatory Ergonomics 2178.10 Conclusions 219Discussion and Review Questions 220Acknowledgements 2209 Considerations for the Future of Construction Work Health and Safety 2219.1 Rethinking Traditional Ways of Working 2219.2 Dealing with Emerging Issues 2249.3 Improving the Quality of Construction Jobs 2259.4 Managing WHS as an Integral Part of Work 2279.5 Focusing Effort Where It Matters 2289.6 Fostering Collaboration with Regard to Work Health and Safety 2309.7 Considering Construction as a Complex Sociotechnical System 2329.8 Concluding Remarks 236Discussion and Review Questions 236References 239Index 275

HELEN LINGARD, PHD, is RMIT Distinguished Professor in construction work health and safety. She leads the Construction Work Health and Safety @ RMIT research group in the School of Property, Construction and Project Management, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. RON WAKEFIELD, PHD, is Professor of Construction, Dean, School of Property, Construction and Project Management and Deputy Pro-Vice Chancellor – International in the Design and Social Context Portfolio, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia.

• Preface xi1 The State of Work Health and Safety in Construction 11.1 The Construction Safety Problem 11.2 The Neglect of Occupational Health 61.3 The Evolution of Workplace Safety 71.4 An Integrated Approach to WHS in Construction 101.4.1 Fragmented Supply Arrangements 101.4.2 Flexible Labour Processes and Precarious Employment 121.4.3 Cultural Characteristics of the Construction Industry 131.5 Structure of the Book 14Discussion and Review Questions 162 The Client’s Role in Improving Workplace Health and Safety 17Helen Lingard, Nick Blismas, Tiendung Le, David Oswald, and James Harley2.1 Can Clients Influence Construction Workers’ Health and Safety? 172.2 The Role of Governments as Policy Makers and Major Purchasers 192.3 The Model Client Framework 202.3.1 Principle 1: Develop a Project Culture that Enables WHS 202.3.2 Principle 2: Leadership and Commitment 212.3.3 Principle 3: Develop Cooperative Relationships 212.3.4 Principle 4: Promote WHS in Planning and Design 212.3.5 Principle 5: Consult with and Communicate WHS Information to Project Stakeholders 212.3.6 Principle 6: Manage WHS Risks and Hazards 222.3.7 Principle 7: Maintain Effective WHS Measures Across the Project Lifecycle 222.3.8 Principle 8: Monitor and Evaluate WHS Performance 222.4 The Model Client Project Process Map 292.5 WHS and Price Competition 342.6 Project Commercial Frameworks and WHS 362.6.1 Choice of Contracting Strategy 372.6.2 Financial Incentive Mechanisms 402.7 The Potential for Unintended Consequences of Client WHS Activity 422.8 The Overriding Importance of Relationships 452.9 Conclusions 45Discussion and Review Questions 46Acknowledgements 463 Designing Safe and Healthy Products and Processes 47Helen Lingard, Nick Blismas, and Payam Pirzadeh3.1 Safety in Design 473.2 The Case for Safety in Design 473.3 How Important Is Design as a Cause of Construction Incidents? 493.4 The Policy Response 523.5 Challenges Inherent in Safety in Design 543.5.1 Sociotechnical Complexity 543.5.2 Vertical Segregation 573.5.3 Confusion Between Product and Process Design 573.5.4 Knowledge Issues 583.5.5 Oversimplified Assumptions 593.6 The Case for Integration 613.6.1 Early and Effective Consideration of Safety in Design 613.6.2 Integrating Process and Product Knowledge 643.7 Integrating Mechanisms 683.7.1 Collaborative Project Delivery Mechanisms 683.7.2 Sharing Knowledge 683.7.3 Infographics and Visual Communication 693.8 Conclusions 71Discussion and Review Questions 72Acknowledgement 724 Construction Workers’ Health 73Helen Lingard and Michelle Turner4.1 Introduction 734.1.1 A Neglected Issue 734.1.2 An Integrated Approach to Managing Workers’ Health 744.2 Work and Health 774.3 Organizational Issues and the Design of Work 794.4 Workplace Risk Factors 804.4.1 Musculoskeletal Disorders 804.4.2 Noise 804.4.3 Chemicals 804.4.4 Airborne Hazards 814.4.5 Emerging Hazards 834.4.6 Psychosocial Hazards 844.5 The Management of Occupational Health 844.6 The Health of Construction Workers 864.6.1 The Health Profile of Construction Workers 864.6.2 Mental Health 894.6.3 Resilience 904.6.4 Suicide 904.7 The Need to Understand Health Behaviour in Context 924.7.1 Ecological Approach to Health 924.7.2 Interaction Between Work and Family 954.7.3 Masculine Work Cultures 964.7.4 Work Ability and Work–Life Fit 964.7.5 Health and Work Ability 964.8 Organizational Responses to Support Health 974.9 Conclusions 102Discussion and Review Questions 102Acknowledgements 1025 Cultures that Enable Work Health and Safety 105Helen Lingard, Rita Peihua Zhang, Nick Blismas, and James Harley5.1 A Culture of Health and Safety 1055.2 What Is Culture and Why Is It Important? 1065.3 Problems Inherent in the Term ‘Safety Culture’ 1065.4 Organizational Culture as an Enabler of Safety 1085.5 Different Approaches to Understanding Cultural Influences on Health and Safety 1095.6 Multiple Layers of Organizational Culture 1105.7 Understanding Cultural Influences on Health and Safety 1125.7.1 Rethink the Way Culture Influences Health and Safety 1125.7.2 Understand Culture as a Layered Phenomenon 1125.7.3 Adopt a Multimethod Approach 1135.7.4 Appreciate Culture as a Differentiated Concept 1135.8 The Australian Constructors Association’s Cultural Maturity Model 1135.8.1 Component 1: Leadership 1145.8.2 Component 2: Communication 1165.8.3 Component 3: Organizational Goals and Values 1185.8.4 Component 4: Supportive Environment 1185.8.5 Component 5: Responsibility, Authority, and Accountability 1205.8.6 Component 6: Learning 1215.8.7 Component 7: Trust in People and Systems 1245.8.8 Component 8: Resilience 1255.8.9 Component 9: Engagement 1265.9 The Organizational Culture Maturity Continuum 1275.10 Conclusions 129Discussion and Review Questions 141Acknowledgements 1416 Understanding and Applying Health and Safety Metrics 143Helen Lingard, Rita Peihua Zhang, Payam Pirzadeh, and Nick Blismas6.1 The Measurement Problem 1436.2 Why Measure Work Health and Safety Performance? 1446.3 Different Types of Performance Indicator 1446.4 Lag Indicators 1456.5 Alternative Indicators 1476.6 What Leads and What Lags? 1486.7 Safety Climate Measurement 1516.7.1 Assumptions About Uniformity 1526.7.2 Assumptions About Stability 1546.7.3 Safety Climate Types 1556.7.4 The Need to Understand Safety Climate in the Social Context in Which It Occurs 1566.8 Safety in Design Metrics 1576.9 Classifying Health and Safety Risk Controls Based on Their Effectiveness 1586.9.1 Step 1: Identifying Relevant ‘Features of Work’ 1586.9.2 Step 2: Identifying Construction Activities and Tasks with Work Health and Safety Implications 1586.9.3 Step 3: Categorizing Hazards Associated with the Construction Activities 1586.9.4 Step 4: Identifying Risk Control Options for Each of the Hazards 1596.9.5 Step 5: Classifying and Scoring the Risk Controls Using the HOC 1596.10 Using HOC Method for Comparison 1666.11 Conclusions 169Discussion and Review Questions 170Acknowledgements 1717 Managing Work Health and Safety: Rethinking Rules and Worker Engagement 173Helen Lingard, and James Harley7.1 Introduction 1737.1.1 Managing Work Health and Safety 1737.1.2 Contrasting Viewpoints About How to Achieve WHS 1747.2 What Is Human Error? 1767.3 Human Error Types 1777.4 Active Errors and Latent Conditions 1797.5 Human Error – A Cause or Symptom of Failure? 1817.6 Rules as a Means of Controlling Behaviour 1827.7 Rule Violations 1837.8 Why Do People Break the Rules? 1847.9 The Importance of Rule Management 1887.10 Conclusions 195Discussion and Review Questions 196Acknowledgements 1968 An Integrated Approach to Reducing the Risk of Work‐Related Musculoskeletal Disorders 197Helen Lingard8.1 Introduction 1978.2 The Prevalence of WMSDs in Construction 1988.3 Risk Factors for WMSDs 1998.3.1 Steel Reinforcement Fixing 2008.3.2 Concreting/Screeding 2018.3.3 Floor Laying 2018.3.4 Mechanical and Electrical System Installation 2028.3.5 Plant Operating 2028.3.6 Masonry 2038.4 Psychosocial Work Stressors and WMSD 2038.5 Cultural Influences 2068.6 Ergonomic Interventions in Construction 2078.7 Designing for Reduced WMSDs 2108.8 Measuring the Risk of WMSDs 2128.9 Participatory Ergonomics 2178.10 Conclusions 219Discussion and Review Questions 220Acknowledgements 2209 Considerations for the Future of Construction Work Health and Safety 2219.1 Rethinking Traditional Ways of Working 2219.2 Dealing with Emerging Issues 2249.3 Improving the Quality of Construction Jobs 2259.4 Managing WHS as an Integral Part of Work 2279.5 Focusing Effort Where It Matters 2289.6 Fostering Collaboration with Regard to Work Health and Safety 2309.7 Considering Construction as a Complex Sociotechnical System 2329.8 Concluding Remarks 236Discussion and Review Questions 236References 239Index 275

HELEN LINGARD, PHD, is RMIT Distinguished Professor in construction work health and safety. She leads the Construction Work Health and Safety @ RMIT research group in the School of Property, Construction and Project Management, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. RON WAKEFIELD, PHD, is Professor of Construction, Dean, School of Property, Construction and Project Management and Deputy Pro-Vice Chancellor – International in the Design and Social Context Portfolio, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia.

• Preface xi1 The State of Work Health and Safety in Construction 11.1 The Construction Safety Problem 11.2 The Neglect of Occupational Health 61.3 The Evolution of Workplace Safety 71.4 An Integrated Approach to WHS in Construction 101.4.1 Fragmented Supply Arrangements 101.4.2 Flexible Labour Processes and Precarious Employment 121.4.3 Cultural Characteristics of the Construction Industry 131.5 Structure of the Book 14Discussion and Review Questions 162 The Client’s Role in Improving Workplace Health and Safety 17Helen Lingard, Nick Blismas, Tiendung Le, David Oswald, and James Harley2.1 Can Clients Influence Construction Workers’ Health and Safety? 172.2 The Role of Governments as Policy Makers and Major Purchasers 192.3 The Model Client Framework 202.3.1 Principle 1: Develop a Project Culture that Enables WHS 202.3.2 Principle 2: Leadership and Commitment 212.3.3 Principle 3: Develop Cooperative Relationships 212.3.4 Principle 4: Promote WHS in Planning and Design 212.3.5 Principle 5: Consult with and Communicate WHS Information to Project Stakeholders 212.3.6 Principle 6: Manage WHS Risks and Hazards 222.3.7 Principle 7: Maintain Effective WHS Measures Across the Project Lifecycle 222.3.8 Principle 8: Monitor and Evaluate WHS Performance 222.4 The Model Client Project Process Map 292.5 WHS and Price Competition 342.6 Project Commercial Frameworks and WHS 362.6.1 Choice of Contracting Strategy 372.6.2 Financial Incentive Mechanisms 402.7 The Potential for Unintended Consequences of Client WHS Activity 422.8 The Overriding Importance of Relationships 452.9 Conclusions 45Discussion and Review Questions 46Acknowledgements 463 Designing Safe and Healthy Products and Processes 47Helen Lingard, Nick Blismas, and Payam Pirzadeh3.1 Safety in Design 473.2 The Case for Safety in Design 473.3 How Important Is Design as a Cause of Construction Incidents? 493.4 The Policy Response 523.5 Challenges Inherent in Safety in Design 543.5.1 Sociotechnical Complexity 543.5.2 Vertical Segregation 573.5.3 Confusion Between Product and Process Design 573.5.4 Knowledge Issues 583.5.5 Oversimplified Assumptions 593.6 The Case for Integration 613.6.1 Early and Effective Consideration of Safety in Design 613.6.2 Integrating Process and Product Knowledge 643.7 Integrating Mechanisms 683.7.1 Collaborative Project Delivery Mechanisms 683.7.2 Sharing Knowledge 683.7.3 Infographics and Visual Communication 693.8 Conclusions 71Discussion and Review Questions 72Acknowledgement 724 Construction Workers’ Health 73Helen Lingard and Michelle Turner4.1 Introduction 734.1.1 A Neglected Issue 734.1.2 An Integrated Approach to Managing Workers’ Health 744.2 Work and Health 774.3 Organizational Issues and the Design of Work 794.4 Workplace Risk Factors 804.4.1 Musculoskeletal Disorders 804.4.2 Noise 804.4.3 Chemicals 804.4.4 Airborne Hazards 814.4.5 Emerging Hazards 834.4.6 Psychosocial Hazards 844.5 The Management of Occupational Health 844.6 The Health of Construction Workers 864.6.1 The Health Profile of Construction Workers 864.6.2 Mental Health 894.6.3 Resilience 904.6.4 Suicide 904.7 The Need to Understand Health Behaviour in Context 924.7.1 Ecological Approach to Health 924.7.2 Interaction Between Work and Family 954.7.3 Masculine Work Cultures 964.7.4 Work Ability and Work–Life Fit 964.7.5 Health and Work Ability 964.8 Organizational Responses to Support Health 974.9 Conclusions 102Discussion and Review Questions 102Acknowledgements 1025 Cultures that Enable Work Health and Safety 105Helen Lingard, Rita Peihua Zhang, Nick Blismas, and James Harley5.1 A Culture of Health and Safety 1055.2 What Is Culture and Why Is It Important? 1065.3 Problems Inherent in the Term ‘Safety Culture’ 1065.4 Organizational Culture as an Enabler of Safety 1085.5 Different Approaches to Understanding Cultural Influences on Health and Safety 1095.6 Multiple Layers of Organizational Culture 1105.7 Understanding Cultural Influences on Health and Safety 1125.7.1 Rethink the Way Culture Influences Health and Safety 1125.7.2 Understand Culture as a Layered Phenomenon 1125.7.3 Adopt a Multimethod Approach 1135.7.4 Appreciate Culture as a Differentiated Concept 1135.8 The Australian Constructors Association’s Cultural Maturity Model 1135.8.1 Component 1: Leadership 1145.8.2 Component 2: Communication 1165.8.3 Component 3: Organizational Goals and Values 1185.8.4 Component 4: Supportive Environment 1185.8.5 Component 5: Responsibility, Authority, and Accountability 1205.8.6 Component 6: Learning 1215.8.7 Component 7: Trust in People and Systems 1245.8.8 Component 8: Resilience 1255.8.9 Component 9: Engagement 1265.9 The Organizational Culture Maturity Continuum 1275.10 Conclusions 129Discussion and Review Questions 141Acknowledgements 1416 Understanding and Applying Health and Safety Metrics 143Helen Lingard, Rita Peihua Zhang, Payam Pirzadeh, and Nick Blismas6.1 The Measurement Problem 1436.2 Why Measure Work Health and Safety Performance? 1446.3 Different Types of Performance Indicator 1446.4 Lag Indicators 1456.5 Alternative Indicators 1476.6 What Leads and What Lags? 1486.7 Safety Climate Measurement 1516.7.1 Assumptions About Uniformity 1526.7.2 Assumptions About Stability 1546.7.3 Safety Climate Types 1556.7.4 The Need to Understand Safety Climate in the Social Context in Which It Occurs 1566.8 Safety in Design Metrics 1576.9 Classifying Health and Safety Risk Controls Based on Their Effectiveness 1586.9.1 Step 1: Identifying Relevant ‘Features of Work’ 1586.9.2 Step 2: Identifying Construction Activities and Tasks with Work Health and Safety Implications 1586.9.3 Step 3: Categorizing Hazards Associated with the Construction Activities 1586.9.4 Step 4: Identifying Risk Control Options for Each of the Hazards 1596.9.5 Step 5: Classifying and Scoring the Risk Controls Using the HOC 1596.10 Using HOC Method for Comparison 1666.11 Conclusions 169Discussion and Review Questions 170Acknowledgements 1717 Managing Work Health and Safety: Rethinking Rules and Worker Engagement 173Helen Lingard, and James Harley7.1 Introduction 1737.1.1 Managing Work Health and Safety 1737.1.2 Contrasting Viewpoints About How to Achieve WHS 1747.2 What Is Human Error? 1767.3 Human Error Types 1777.4 Active Errors and Latent Conditions 1797.5 Human Error – A Cause or Symptom of Failure? 1817.6 Rules as a Means of Controlling Behaviour 1827.7 Rule Violations 1837.8 Why Do People Break the Rules? 1847.9 The Importance of Rule Management 1887.10 Conclusions 195Discussion and Review Questions 196Acknowledgements 1968 An Integrated Approach to Reducing the Risk of Work‐Related Musculoskeletal Disorders 197Helen Lingard8.1 Introduction 1978.2 The Prevalence of WMSDs in Construction 1988.3 Risk Factors for WMSDs 1998.3.1 Steel Reinforcement Fixing 2008.3.2 Concreting/Screeding 2018.3.3 Floor Laying 2018.3.4 Mechanical and Electrical System Installation 2028.3.5 Plant Operating 2028.3.6 Masonry 2038.4 Psychosocial Work Stressors and WMSD 2038.5 Cultural Influences 2068.6 Ergonomic Interventions in Construction 2078.7 Designing for Reduced WMSDs 2108.8 Measuring the Risk of WMSDs 2128.9 Participatory Ergonomics 2178.10 Conclusions 219Discussion and Review Questions 220Acknowledgements 2209 Considerations for the Future of Construction Work Health and Safety 2219.1 Rethinking Traditional Ways of Working 2219.2 Dealing with Emerging Issues 2249.3 Improving the Quality of Construction Jobs 2259.4 Managing WHS as an Integral Part of Work 2279.5 Focusing Effort Where It Matters 2289.6 Fostering Collaboration with Regard to Work Health and Safety 2309.7 Considering Construction as a Complex Sociotechnical System 2329.8 Concluding Remarks 236Discussion and Review Questions 236References 239Index 275