NICK HEWITT, PHD, is Distinguished Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry at Lancaster University, UK. His main research interests are in understanding how the biosphere and the atmosphere interact, how emissions of trace gases from the surface affect the composition and chemistry of the atmosphere, and how the changing atmospheric environment affects the world we live in.ANDREA V. JACKSON, PHD, recently retired as Professor of Student Education and Engagement at the University of Leeds, UK. As well as conducting research in atmospheric chemistry, she worked with the UK's National Centre for Atmospheric Science on the development of their education and training programmes.

• List of Contributors ixPreface xiAbbreviations, Constants, and Nomenclature xiii1 The Climate of the Earth 1John Lockwood1.1 Basic Climatology 11.2 General Atmospheric Circulation 31.3 Palaeoclimates 61.4 Polar Climates 121.5 Temperate Latitude Climates 161.6 Tropical Climates 20Questions 28References 28Further Reading 302 Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere 31Richard Wayne2.1 Creation of the Planets and Their Earliest Atmospheres 342.2 Earth’s Atmosphere before Life Began 372.3 Comparison of Venus, Earth, and Mars 382.4 Life and Earth’s Atmosphere 412.5 Carbon Dioxide in Earth’s Atmosphere 472.6 The Rise of Oxygen Concentrations 502.7 Protection of Life from Ultraviolet Radiation 602.8 The Great Oxidation Event and Related Issues 642.9 The Future 68Questions 68References 69Further Reading 743 Atmospheric Energy and the Structure of the Atmosphere 75Hugh Coe3.1 The Vertical Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere 753.2 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation 773.3 Solar Radiation, Ozone, and the Stratospheric Temperature Profile 823.4 Trapping of Longwave Radiation 853.5 A Simple Model of Radiation Transfer 853.6 Light Scattering 903.7 Conduction, Convection, and Sensible and Latent Heat 963.8 Energy Budget for Earth’s Atmosphere 1033.9 Aerosols, Clouds, and Climate 1063.10 Solar Radiation and the Biosphere 1093.11 Summary 111Questions 112References 112Further Reading 1144 Biogeochemical Cycles 115Dudley Shallcross and Anwar Khan4.1 Sources 1194.2 Sinks 1194.3 Carbon 1244.4 Nitrogen 1324.5 Sulphur 1344.6 Halogens 1424.7 Hydrogen 1524.8 Summary 153Questions 153References 154Further Reading 1575 Tropospheric Chemistry and Air Pollution 159Paul Monks and Joshua Vande Hey5.1 Sources of Trace Gases in the Atmosphere 1595.2 Key Processes in Tropospheric Chemistry 1645.3 Initiation of Photochemistry by Light 1655.4 Tropospheric Oxidation Chemistry 1665.5 Night-Time Oxidation Chemistry 1785.6 Halogen Chemistry 1825.7 Air Pollution and Urban Chemistry 1875.8 Summary 195Questions 197References 199Further Reading 2026 Cloud Formation and Chemistry 203Peter Brimblecombe6.1 Clouds 2036.2 Cloud Formation 2046.3 Particle Size and Water Content 2076.4 Dissolved Solids in Cloud Water and Rainfall 2096.5 Dissolution of Gases 2116.6 Reactions and Photochemistry 2196.7 Radical and Photochemical Reactions 2246.8 Summary 227References 228Further Reading 231Websites 2317 Particulate Matter in the Atmosphere 233Paul I. Williams7.1 Aerosol Properties 2357.2 Aerosol Sources 2457.3 The Role of Atmospheric Particles 2547.4 Aerosol Measurements 2627.5 Summary 265Acknowledgement 266Questions 266References 2678 Stratospheric Chemistry and Ozone Depletion 271Martyn P. Chipperfield and A. Rob MacKenzie8.1 Ozone Column Amounts 2728.2 Physical Structure of the Stratosphere 2758.3 Gas-Phase Chemistry of the Stratosphere 2828.4 Aerosols and Clouds in the Stratosphere 2878.5 Heterogeneous Chemistry of the Stratosphere 2908.6 Future Perturbations to the Stratosphere 2918.7 Summary 295Questions 295References 2969 Boundary Layer Meteorology and Atmospheric Dispersion 299Janet Barlow and Natalie Theeuwes9.1 The Atmospheric Boundary Layer 2999.2 Flow over Vegetation 3079.3 The Urban Boundary Layer 3129.4 Dispersion of Pollutants 3199.5 Summary 326Questions 327References 327Further Reading 32910 Urban Air Pollution 331Zongbo Shi10.1 Introduction 33110.2 Urban Air Pollution – A Brief History 33110.3 Scale of Urban Air Pollution 33310.4 Air Pollutants and Their Sources in the Urban Atmosphere 33410.5 From Emissions to Airborne Concentrations 33910.6 Urban-Scale Impacts 34310.7 Means of Mitigation 34910.8 Summary 361Acknowledgement 363Questions 363References 364Further Reading 36511 Global Warming and Climate Change Science 367Atul Jain, Xiaoming Xu, and Nick Hewitt11.1 Historical Evidence of the Impact of Human Activities on Climate 36911.2 Future Outlook of Climate Change 37911.3 The Integrated Science Assessment Modelling (ISAM) 38611.4 Potential Impacts of Climate Change 39311.5 Summary 395Acknowledgement 396Questions 396References 396Appendix: Suggested Web Resources 399Index 401

NICK HEWITT, PHD, is Distinguished Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry at Lancaster University, UK. His main research interests are in understanding how the biosphere and the atmosphere interact, how emissions of trace gases from the surface affect the composition and chemistry of the atmosphere, and how the changing atmospheric environment affects the world we live in.ANDREA V. JACKSON, PHD, recently retired as Professor of Student Education and Engagement at the University of Leeds, UK. As well as conducting research in atmospheric chemistry, she worked with the UK's National Centre for Atmospheric Science on the development of their education and training programmes.

• List of Contributors ixPreface xiAbbreviations, Constants, and Nomenclature xiii1 The Climate of the Earth 1John Lockwood1.1 Basic Climatology 11.2 General Atmospheric Circulation 31.3 Palaeoclimates 61.4 Polar Climates 121.5 Temperate Latitude Climates 161.6 Tropical Climates 20Questions 28References 28Further Reading 302 Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere 31Richard Wayne2.1 Creation of the Planets and Their Earliest Atmospheres 342.2 Earth’s Atmosphere before Life Began 372.3 Comparison of Venus, Earth, and Mars 382.4 Life and Earth’s Atmosphere 412.5 Carbon Dioxide in Earth’s Atmosphere 472.6 The Rise of Oxygen Concentrations 502.7 Protection of Life from Ultraviolet Radiation 602.8 The Great Oxidation Event and Related Issues 642.9 The Future 68Questions 68References 69Further Reading 743 Atmospheric Energy and the Structure of the Atmosphere 75Hugh Coe3.1 The Vertical Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere 753.2 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation 773.3 Solar Radiation, Ozone, and the Stratospheric Temperature Profile 823.4 Trapping of Longwave Radiation 853.5 A Simple Model of Radiation Transfer 853.6 Light Scattering 903.7 Conduction, Convection, and Sensible and Latent Heat 963.8 Energy Budget for Earth’s Atmosphere 1033.9 Aerosols, Clouds, and Climate 1063.10 Solar Radiation and the Biosphere 1093.11 Summary 111Questions 112References 112Further Reading 1144 Biogeochemical Cycles 115Dudley Shallcross and Anwar Khan4.1 Sources 1194.2 Sinks 1194.3 Carbon 1244.4 Nitrogen 1324.5 Sulphur 1344.6 Halogens 1424.7 Hydrogen 1524.8 Summary 153Questions 153References 154Further Reading 1575 Tropospheric Chemistry and Air Pollution 159Paul Monks and Joshua Vande Hey5.1 Sources of Trace Gases in the Atmosphere 1595.2 Key Processes in Tropospheric Chemistry 1645.3 Initiation of Photochemistry by Light 1655.4 Tropospheric Oxidation Chemistry 1665.5 Night-Time Oxidation Chemistry 1785.6 Halogen Chemistry 1825.7 Air Pollution and Urban Chemistry 1875.8 Summary 195Questions 197References 199Further Reading 2026 Cloud Formation and Chemistry 203Peter Brimblecombe6.1 Clouds 2036.2 Cloud Formation 2046.3 Particle Size and Water Content 2076.4 Dissolved Solids in Cloud Water and Rainfall 2096.5 Dissolution of Gases 2116.6 Reactions and Photochemistry 2196.7 Radical and Photochemical Reactions 2246.8 Summary 227References 228Further Reading 231Websites 2317 Particulate Matter in the Atmosphere 233Paul I. Williams7.1 Aerosol Properties 2357.2 Aerosol Sources 2457.3 The Role of Atmospheric Particles 2547.4 Aerosol Measurements 2627.5 Summary 265Acknowledgement 266Questions 266References 2678 Stratospheric Chemistry and Ozone Depletion 271Martyn P. Chipperfield and A. Rob MacKenzie8.1 Ozone Column Amounts 2728.2 Physical Structure of the Stratosphere 2758.3 Gas-Phase Chemistry of the Stratosphere 2828.4 Aerosols and Clouds in the Stratosphere 2878.5 Heterogeneous Chemistry of the Stratosphere 2908.6 Future Perturbations to the Stratosphere 2918.7 Summary 295Questions 295References 2969 Boundary Layer Meteorology and Atmospheric Dispersion 299Janet Barlow and Natalie Theeuwes9.1 The Atmospheric Boundary Layer 2999.2 Flow over Vegetation 3079.3 The Urban Boundary Layer 3129.4 Dispersion of Pollutants 3199.5 Summary 326Questions 327References 327Further Reading 32910 Urban Air Pollution 331Zongbo Shi10.1 Introduction 33110.2 Urban Air Pollution – A Brief History 33110.3 Scale of Urban Air Pollution 33310.4 Air Pollutants and Their Sources in the Urban Atmosphere 33410.5 From Emissions to Airborne Concentrations 33910.6 Urban-Scale Impacts 34310.7 Means of Mitigation 34910.8 Summary 361Acknowledgement 363Questions 363References 364Further Reading 36511 Global Warming and Climate Change Science 367Atul Jain, Xiaoming Xu, and Nick Hewitt11.1 Historical Evidence of the Impact of Human Activities on Climate 36911.2 Future Outlook of Climate Change 37911.3 The Integrated Science Assessment Modelling (ISAM) 38611.4 Potential Impacts of Climate Change 39311.5 Summary 395Acknowledgement 396Questions 396References 396Appendix: Suggested Web Resources 399Index 401

NICK HEWITT, PHD, is Distinguished Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry at Lancaster University, UK. His main research interests are in understanding how the biosphere and the atmosphere interact, how emissions of trace gases from the surface affect the composition and chemistry of the atmosphere, and how the changing atmospheric environment affects the world we live in.ANDREA V. JACKSON, PHD, recently retired as Professor of Student Education and Engagement at the University of Leeds, UK. As well as conducting research in atmospheric chemistry, she worked with the UK's National Centre for Atmospheric Science on the development of their education and training programmes.

• List of Contributors ixPreface xiAbbreviations, Constants, and Nomenclature xiii1 The Climate of the Earth 1John Lockwood1.1 Basic Climatology 11.2 General Atmospheric Circulation 31.3 Palaeoclimates 61.4 Polar Climates 121.5 Temperate Latitude Climates 161.6 Tropical Climates 20Questions 28References 28Further Reading 302 Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere 31Richard Wayne2.1 Creation of the Planets and Their Earliest Atmospheres 342.2 Earth’s Atmosphere before Life Began 372.3 Comparison of Venus, Earth, and Mars 382.4 Life and Earth’s Atmosphere 412.5 Carbon Dioxide in Earth’s Atmosphere 472.6 The Rise of Oxygen Concentrations 502.7 Protection of Life from Ultraviolet Radiation 602.8 The Great Oxidation Event and Related Issues 642.9 The Future 68Questions 68References 69Further Reading 743 Atmospheric Energy and the Structure of the Atmosphere 75Hugh Coe3.1 The Vertical Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere 753.2 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation 773.3 Solar Radiation, Ozone, and the Stratospheric Temperature Profile 823.4 Trapping of Longwave Radiation 853.5 A Simple Model of Radiation Transfer 853.6 Light Scattering 903.7 Conduction, Convection, and Sensible and Latent Heat 963.8 Energy Budget for Earth’s Atmosphere 1033.9 Aerosols, Clouds, and Climate 1063.10 Solar Radiation and the Biosphere 1093.11 Summary 111Questions 112References 112Further Reading 1144 Biogeochemical Cycles 115Dudley Shallcross and Anwar Khan4.1 Sources 1194.2 Sinks 1194.3 Carbon 1244.4 Nitrogen 1324.5 Sulphur 1344.6 Halogens 1424.7 Hydrogen 1524.8 Summary 153Questions 153References 154Further Reading 1575 Tropospheric Chemistry and Air Pollution 159Paul Monks and Joshua Vande Hey5.1 Sources of Trace Gases in the Atmosphere 1595.2 Key Processes in Tropospheric Chemistry 1645.3 Initiation of Photochemistry by Light 1655.4 Tropospheric Oxidation Chemistry 1665.5 Night-Time Oxidation Chemistry 1785.6 Halogen Chemistry 1825.7 Air Pollution and Urban Chemistry 1875.8 Summary 195Questions 197References 199Further Reading 2026 Cloud Formation and Chemistry 203Peter Brimblecombe6.1 Clouds 2036.2 Cloud Formation 2046.3 Particle Size and Water Content 2076.4 Dissolved Solids in Cloud Water and Rainfall 2096.5 Dissolution of Gases 2116.6 Reactions and Photochemistry 2196.7 Radical and Photochemical Reactions 2246.8 Summary 227References 228Further Reading 231Websites 2317 Particulate Matter in the Atmosphere 233Paul I. Williams7.1 Aerosol Properties 2357.2 Aerosol Sources 2457.3 The Role of Atmospheric Particles 2547.4 Aerosol Measurements 2627.5 Summary 265Acknowledgement 266Questions 266References 2678 Stratospheric Chemistry and Ozone Depletion 271Martyn P. Chipperfield and A. Rob MacKenzie8.1 Ozone Column Amounts 2728.2 Physical Structure of the Stratosphere 2758.3 Gas-Phase Chemistry of the Stratosphere 2828.4 Aerosols and Clouds in the Stratosphere 2878.5 Heterogeneous Chemistry of the Stratosphere 2908.6 Future Perturbations to the Stratosphere 2918.7 Summary 295Questions 295References 2969 Boundary Layer Meteorology and Atmospheric Dispersion 299Janet Barlow and Natalie Theeuwes9.1 The Atmospheric Boundary Layer 2999.2 Flow over Vegetation 3079.3 The Urban Boundary Layer 3129.4 Dispersion of Pollutants 3199.5 Summary 326Questions 327References 327Further Reading 32910 Urban Air Pollution 331Zongbo Shi10.1 Introduction 33110.2 Urban Air Pollution – A Brief History 33110.3 Scale of Urban Air Pollution 33310.4 Air Pollutants and Their Sources in the Urban Atmosphere 33410.5 From Emissions to Airborne Concentrations 33910.6 Urban-Scale Impacts 34310.7 Means of Mitigation 34910.8 Summary 361Acknowledgement 363Questions 363References 364Further Reading 36511 Global Warming and Climate Change Science 367Atul Jain, Xiaoming Xu, and Nick Hewitt11.1 Historical Evidence of the Impact of Human Activities on Climate 36911.2 Future Outlook of Climate Change 37911.3 The Integrated Science Assessment Modelling (ISAM) 38611.4 Potential Impacts of Climate Change 39311.5 Summary 395Acknowledgement 396Questions 396References 396Appendix: Suggested Web Resources 399Index 401