ALIREZA BAHADORI, PhD, CEng, MIChemE, CPEng, MIEAust, RPEQ, NER is a research staff member in the School of Environment, Science and Engineering at Southern Cross University, Australia, and Managing Director and CEO of Australian Oil and Gas Services, Pty. Ltd. He received his PhD from Curtin University, Western Australia and has held various positions in the process and petroleum industry for more than twenty years. He has been involved in many large scale oil and gas projects, and has written extensively on the field.

• Preface xvAbout the Author xix1 Wastewater Treatment 11.1 Characteristics of Wastewater 21.1.1 Wastewater Classifications 51.1.2 Water Pollution Terminals 51.1.3 Suspended Solids 61.1.4 Heavy Metals 61.1.5 Dissolved Inorganic Solids 71.1.6 Toxic Organic Compounds 71.1.7 Surfactants 71.1.8 Priority Pollutants 91.1.9 Volatile Organic Compounds 91.2 Treatment Stages 91.2.1 Sources of Wastewater 111.2.2 Discharge Options and Quality Requirements 111.3 Effluent Water Pollution Control 131.3.1 Spill Prevention and Control 141.3.2 Groundwater Pollution Control 161.4 Treatment Processes 181.4.1 Wastewater Pollution Oil Terminals 201.4.2 Simple Gravity Separation 211.4.3 Residual Suspended Matter 211.4.4 Selection of Treatment Processes 221.5 Siting and Design 241.5.1 Aquatic Ecosystems 251.5.2 Terrestrial Ecosystems 251.5.3 Wetland Ecosystems 271.5.4 Land Use 281.5.5 Water Pollution Control 281.6 Sources of Effluent in the Petrochemical Industry 291.6.1 Water Pollution 291.6.2 Cooling Water 291.6.3 Washing Water and Process Water 291.6.4 Typical Pollutants in the Petrochemical Industry 291.6.5 Petrochemical Waste Treatment 301.6.6 Fertilizer 311.7 Effect of Pollution 331.7.1 Major Pollutants 331.8 Olefin Plants 341.8.1 Polymeric Plants 351.8.2 Polyvinyl Chloride Plants 361.8.3 Aromatic Plants 371.9 Environmental Protection for Industrial Waste 371.9.1 Important Factors in Process Selection 371.10 Chemical Oxygen Demand in Wastewater Systems 441.10.1 Determination of COD 441.10.2 Calculation of Theoretical Oxygen Demand 452 Physical Unit Operations 472.1 Flow Measurement 472.2 Screening 472.3 Comminution 502.4 Grit Removal 502.5 Gravity Separation 512.5.1 General 512.5.2 Application 522.5.3 Oil–Water Separators: General Design Considerations 532.5.4 Conventional, Rectangular Channel (API) Separators 532.5.5 Parallel-Plate Separators 652.5.6 Oil Traps 672.5.7 Oil Holding Basins 682.6 Flow Equalization 682.6.1 Application and Location 682.6.2 Volume Requirements 692.7 Mixing 702.7.1 Description and Type 702.7.2 Application 702.8 Sedimentation 712.8.1 Sedimentation Theory 712.8.2 Application and Type 732.8.3 Design Considerations 742.8.4 Number of Basins 752.8.5 Inlet Arrangements 752.8.6 Short-Circuiting 762.8.7 Outlet Arrangements 762.8.8 Detention Time 762.8.9 Surface Loading Rate 762.8.10 Factors Affecting Sedimentation 762.9 Dissolved Air Flotation 782.9.1 General 782.9.2 System Configuration 792.9.3 Variables Affecting DAF Efficiency 802.9.4 Treatability Testing 802.9.5 Design Considerations 812.9.6 Instruments and Control 862.9.7 Piping 862.9.8 Chemicals Facilities 872.9.9 Material 872.9.10 Estimation of Air Concentration in DAF Systems 872.10 Granular-Media Filters 932.10.1 General 932.10.2 Filter Types and Applications 942.10.3 System Design Parameters 962.10.4 Cycle Time 982.10.5 Vessels and Appurtenances 992.10.6 Instrumentation and Controls 1003 Chemical Treatments 1033.1 Introduction 1033.1.1 Chemical Precipitation 1033.1.2 Chemical Coagulation 1033.1.3 Chemical Oxidation and Advanced Oxidation 1043.1.4 Ion Exchange 1043.1.5 Chemical Stabilization 1063.2 Definition and Application 1063.2.1 Activated Carbon Adsorption 1063.3 Chemical Precipitation 1093.4 Chemical Flocculation 1093.4.1 Definition and Applications 1103.4.2 Design Considerations 1123.4.3 Clarifiers 1123.4.4 Chemical Addition Systems 1153.5 Disinfection 1163.5.1 Chemical Agents 1163.5.2 Mechanical Means of Disinfection 1163.6 Chlorination 1183.6.1 Chlorine Dosages 1183.6.2 Design Considerations 1193.7 Water Monitoring 1203.7.1 Design Considerations for a Water Monitoring System 1213.8 On-Site Portable Instruments for Water Pollution Control 1213.8.1 Alternative Current Colorimeter 1223.8.2 Online Fixed Measurement or Continuous Monitoring 1223.8.3 Continuous Water Sampling and Clarification System 1223.8.4 Laboratory Instruments 1223.8.5 Soil Water Sampling 1253.8.6 Groundwater Sampling 1263.9 Physical Examination 1263.9.1 Color 1263.9.2 Conductivity 1273.9.3 Turbidity 1283.9.4 Determination of Metals 1283.9.5 Polarography 1283.9.6 Determination of Organic Constituents 1293.9.7 Combustible Gas Indicator 1303.9.8 Total Organic Carbon 1303.9.9 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 1313.9.10 Chemical Oxygen Demand 1313.9.11 Examination of Water and Wastewater Radioactivity 1313.10 Automated Laboratory Equipment for Monitoring Water and Wastewater 1333.10.1 Loading Losses 1333.10.2 Emissions to Water 1344 Biological Treatments 1374.1 Theory 1374.1.1 Biological Activated Carbon Process 1394.1.2 Biokinetic Theoretical Model 1404.2 Biological Treatment Processes 1424.2.1 Major Differences in Aerobic and Anaerobic Treatment 1444.2.2 Aerobic Processes 1464.2.3 Anaerobic Waste Treatment 1494.2.4 Aerobic-Anaerobic (Facultative) Waste Treatment 1494.3 Activated Sludge Units 1504.3.1 Applications 1514.3.2 Effects of Activated Sludge 1514.3.3 Feed Composition 1524.3.4 Process Design 1574.3.5 Design Considerations 1584.4 Trickling Filters 1604.4.1 Trickling Filter Process Design 1624.5 Rotating Biological Contactor System 1634.6 Sewage Oxidation Ponds 1645 Wastewater Treatment in the Unconventional Oil and Gas Industries 1675.1 Background 1675.1.1 Dissolved and Dispersed Hydrocarbon Components 1695.1.2 Dissolved Minerals 1695.1.3 Production Chemicals 1695.1.4 Produced Solids 1705.1.5 Dissolved Gases 1705.2 Toxicity Limitations of Coal Bed Water 1715.3 Shale Gas and CSG Produced Water: Treatment, and Disposal 1745.3.1 Evaporation Ponds 1745.3.2 Surface-Stream Disposal 1745.3.3 Ion Exchange 1765.3.4 Membrane Filtration Technology 1765.3.5 Freeze-Thaw Evaporation 1785.3.6 Adsorption 1785.3.7 Chemical Oxidation 1785.3.8 Filtration 1795.3.9 Constructed Wetlands 1795.3.10 Electrodialysis and Electrodialysis Reversal 1795.3.11 Deep Well Injection at Dedicated Onshore Sites 1805.3.12 Biological Aerated Filters 1805.3.13 Macro-porous Polymer Extraction Technology 1815.3.14 Thermal Technologies 1815.4 Re-thinking Technologies for Safer Facing 1855.5 Water Treatment for Oil Sands Mining 1915.5.1 Recycling and Water Treatment Options 1925.5.2 Oily Water Treatment in Oil Sands Mining 1936 Wastewater Sewer Systems 1996.1 Storm Water Sewer System 2006.2 Oily Water Sewer System 2006.3 Non-Oily Water Sewer System 2016.4 Chemical Sewer System(s) 2026.4.1 Disposal of Chemical Sewers 2026.4.2 Neutralization Systems 2026.4.3 Types of Chemical Waste 2026.5 Sanitary Sewer System 2036.6 Special Sewer Systems 2036.7 Effluent Sources and Disposal 2036.8 Particular Effluents in Refinery and Petrochemical Plants 2056.8.1 Caustic Scrubs (Heavy Oils) 2056.8.2 Desalter Wastewater 2056.8.3 Foul or Sour Water 2066.8.4 Spent Caustic Solutions 2066.8.5 MTBE or Leaded Contaminated Streams 2086.8.6 Benzene Contaminated Streams 2086.8.7 Spent Sulfuric Acid Products 2096.8.8 Nitrogen Base Components 2106.8.9 Cyanides 2106.8.10 Aluminum Chloride 2106.8.11 Polyelectrolyte 2106.8.12 Ferric Chloride 2116.8.13 Phosphoric Acid 2116.8.14 Hydrofluoric Acid 2116.8.15 Other Spent Catalysts 2116.8.16 Chemical Cleaning Waste 2116.8.17 Sulfur Solidification and Crushing Facilities, and Loading Systems Drainage 2116.8.18 Water Containing Solids, Emulsifying Agents, etc 2126.8.19 Heavy Viscous Oils Drainage 2126.8.20 Toxic Metal Contaminated Streams 2126.8.21 Solvent Processes Drainage 2126.8.22 Treating Processes Drainage 2126.9 Petrochemical Plant Special Effluents 2126.9.1 Summary of Disposal/Treatment Methods 2136.10 NGL, LNG, and LPG Area Effluents 2156.10.1 Liquefied Gas Spill 2156.11 Gas Treatment Facilities Effluents 2166.12 Effluents from Terminals, Depots, and Product Handling Areas 2166.13 General Considerations and Conditions for Release of Waste 2166.13.1 Characteristics and Composition of Waste 2166.13.2 Characteristics of the Discharge Site and Receiving Environment 2176.13.3 Availability of Waste Technologies 2176.14 Effluent Wastewater Characteristics 2186.14.1 Flow 2186.14.2 Temperature 2186.14.3 pH 2186.14.4 Oxygen Demand 2196.14.5 Phenol Content 2196.14.6 Sulfide Content 2196.14.7 Oil Content 2206.14.8 Light Hydrocarbon Solubility in Water 2206.14.9 Predicting the Mutual Solubility of Water–Hydrocarbon Systems 2216.15 Wastewater Emissions 2266.15.1 Point Source Discharge 2266.15.2 Effluent Permissible Concentrations 2286.16 Unsaturated Zone 2326.17 Site Assessment 2326.18 Gathering Release Information 2337 Sewage Treatment 2377.1 Sewage Effluents 2387.1.1 Receiving Water 2387.1.2 Final Effluents of Domestic Wastewater Plants 2397.2 Methods of Sewage Treatment: General 2397.2.1 Conventional Methods 2397.3 Choice of System: General 2397.4 Design of Sewage Treatment Plants: General Guidance 2407.5 Design of Small Sewage Treatment Plants 2407.5.1 Collection of Information 2407.6 Preliminary Treatment 2427.7 Primary and Secondary Settlement Tanks 2427.7.1 Capacities of Primary Settlement Tanks 2437.8 Sludge Digesters 2447.9 Drying Beds 2447.9.1 Secondary Settlement Tanks 2457.10 Biological Filters 2467.10.1 Distribution 2477.10.2 Volume of Filter 2477.10.3 Mineral Filter Media 2477.11 Activated Sludge Units 2487.12 Tertiary Treatment (Polishing) Processes 2497.13 Disposal of Final Effluent 2497.14 Advanced Wastewater Treatment 2507.14.1 Effects of Chemical Constituents in Wastewater 2507.14.2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Operations and Processes 2507.15 Effluent Disposal and Reuse 2507.15.1 Direct and Indirect Reuse of Wastewater 2508 Solid Waste Treatment and Disposal 2578.1 Basic Considerations 2578.1.1 Classification 2578.1.2 Methodology 2578.1.3 Sources 2588.1.4 Characteristics 2618.1.5 Quantities 2618.2 Sludge Handling, Treatment, and Reuse 2618.2.1 General 2618.2.2 Sludge and Scum Pumping 2648.2.3 Sludge Piping 2688.2.4 Preliminary Operation Facilities 2708.2.5 Thickening (Concentration) 2728.3 Stabilization 2748.3.1 Design Considerations 2758.3.2 Lime Stabilization 2758.3.3 Heat Treatment 2758.3.4 Anaerobic Sludge Digestion 2768.3.5 Composting 2788.4 Conditioning 2788.5 Disinfection 2788.6 Dewatering 2798.6.1 Sludge Dewatering Methods 2798.6.2 Vacuum Filtration 2798.6.3 Centrifugation 2818.6.4 Belt Filter Press 2828.6.5 Sludge Drying Beds 2828.6.6 Lagoons 2838.7 Heat Drying 2838.8 Thermal Reduction 2848.8.1 Thermal Reduction Process Applications 2848.9 Land Application of Sludge 2858.10 Chemical Fixation 2868.11 Gathering Contaminant-Specific Information 2868.12 Evaluating Contaminant Mobility 2888.13 Technology Selection 2888.13.1 Soil Venting 2898.13.2 Biorestoration 2898.13.3 Soil Flushing 2898.13.4 Hydraulic Methods 2908.13.5 Excavation 2908.14 Saturated Zone 2918.15 Site Assessment 2918.15.1 Gathering Contaminant-Specific Information 2918.15.2 Evaluating the Contaminant Phase in the Saturated Zone 2928.16 Evaluating Contaminant Mobility 2948.16.1 Mass of Dissolved and Sorbed Contaminants in Groundwater 2948.16.2 Extent of Contaminant Plume 2958.16.3 Mobility of Contamination in the Saturated Zone 2968.17 Setting Remediation Goals 2968.18 Technology Selection 2968.19 Dissolved Contaminants 2978.19.1 Trench Excavation 2978.19.2 Pumping Well Installation 2978.19.3 Recovery of Floating NAPL 2988.19.4 Treatment of Contaminants Dissolved in Groundwater 2988.20 Methodology for Pipeline Leak Consequence Evaluation 3008.20.1 Evaluation of Leak 3008.20.2 Potential Leak Rate and Leak Mass 3028.20.3 Environmental Consequence Factor 3048.21 Leak Detection Techniques 3068.21.1 Balancing Mass Input Versus Output 3078.21.2 Pressure and/or Flow Analysis 3108.21.3 Monitoring of Characteristic Signals Generated by a Leak 3108.21.4 Off-Line Leak Detection 3118.22 Leakproof Control of Pipeline Gas Piping, Tanks, and Technological Installations Using Radioactive Tracers 3128.22.1 Leak Detection in Liquid Pipelines 3138.22.2 Leak Detection in Gas Pipelines 3138.23 Final Sludge and Solids Conveyance, Storage, and Disposal 3148.23.1 Conveyance Methods 3158.23.2 Environmental Considerations in Sludge Transportation 3158.23.3 Sludge Storage 3158.23.4 Final Disposal 3168.23.5 Incineration 3178.23.6 Ash Handling and Disposal 3188.24 Disposal of Solid Waste 3188.24.1 Types of Waste 3188.24.2 Siting of Hazardous Waste Facilities 3198.24.3 Non-Hazardous Waste 3208.24.4 Sources, Segregation, Quantities, and Characteristics of Solid Waste in Refineries 3218.24.5 Source Reduction Methods 3238.24.6 Resource Recovery and Waste Minimization 3248.24.7 Hazardous Waste Reduction 3288.24.8 Treatment Prior to Ultimate Disposal 3308.24.9 Disposal of Waste Generated in Drilling Wells 3368.24.10 General Sampling Considerations 3378.24.11 Air Monitoring of Waste for Employee Protection 3438.24.12 Procedures 3448.24.13 Hazards 3458.24.14 Quality Assurance Considerations 3468.25 Emissions to Land 3468.25.1 Groundwater Monitoring 3468.25.2 Spills 3478.26 Evaluation of Soil Infiltration Problems 3488.26.1 Predictive Tool 3488.26.2 Sample Calculations for Practice Engineers 351Definitions and Terminology 353Bibliography 383Index 403

ALIREZA BAHADORI, PhD, CEng, MIChemE, CPEng, MIEAust, RPEQ, NER is a research staff member in the School of Environment, Science and Engineering at Southern Cross University, Australia, and Managing Director and CEO of Australian Oil and Gas Services, Pty. Ltd. He received his PhD from Curtin University, Western Australia and has held various positions in the process and petroleum industry for more than twenty years. He has been involved in many large scale oil and gas projects, and has written extensively on the field.

• Preface xvAbout the Author xix1 Wastewater Treatment 11.1 Characteristics of Wastewater 21.1.1 Wastewater Classifications 51.1.2 Water Pollution Terminals 51.1.3 Suspended Solids 61.1.4 Heavy Metals 61.1.5 Dissolved Inorganic Solids 71.1.6 Toxic Organic Compounds 71.1.7 Surfactants 71.1.8 Priority Pollutants 91.1.9 Volatile Organic Compounds 91.2 Treatment Stages 91.2.1 Sources of Wastewater 111.2.2 Discharge Options and Quality Requirements 111.3 Effluent Water Pollution Control 131.3.1 Spill Prevention and Control 141.3.2 Groundwater Pollution Control 161.4 Treatment Processes 181.4.1 Wastewater Pollution Oil Terminals 201.4.2 Simple Gravity Separation 211.4.3 Residual Suspended Matter 211.4.4 Selection of Treatment Processes 221.5 Siting and Design 241.5.1 Aquatic Ecosystems 251.5.2 Terrestrial Ecosystems 251.5.3 Wetland Ecosystems 271.5.4 Land Use 281.5.5 Water Pollution Control 281.6 Sources of Effluent in the Petrochemical Industry 291.6.1 Water Pollution 291.6.2 Cooling Water 291.6.3 Washing Water and Process Water 291.6.4 Typical Pollutants in the Petrochemical Industry 291.6.5 Petrochemical Waste Treatment 301.6.6 Fertilizer 311.7 Effect of Pollution 331.7.1 Major Pollutants 331.8 Olefin Plants 341.8.1 Polymeric Plants 351.8.2 Polyvinyl Chloride Plants 361.8.3 Aromatic Plants 371.9 Environmental Protection for Industrial Waste 371.9.1 Important Factors in Process Selection 371.10 Chemical Oxygen Demand in Wastewater Systems 441.10.1 Determination of COD 441.10.2 Calculation of Theoretical Oxygen Demand 452 Physical Unit Operations 472.1 Flow Measurement 472.2 Screening 472.3 Comminution 502.4 Grit Removal 502.5 Gravity Separation 512.5.1 General 512.5.2 Application 522.5.3 Oil–Water Separators: General Design Considerations 532.5.4 Conventional, Rectangular Channel (API) Separators 532.5.5 Parallel-Plate Separators 652.5.6 Oil Traps 672.5.7 Oil Holding Basins 682.6 Flow Equalization 682.6.1 Application and Location 682.6.2 Volume Requirements 692.7 Mixing 702.7.1 Description and Type 702.7.2 Application 702.8 Sedimentation 712.8.1 Sedimentation Theory 712.8.2 Application and Type 732.8.3 Design Considerations 742.8.4 Number of Basins 752.8.5 Inlet Arrangements 752.8.6 Short-Circuiting 762.8.7 Outlet Arrangements 762.8.8 Detention Time 762.8.9 Surface Loading Rate 762.8.10 Factors Affecting Sedimentation 762.9 Dissolved Air Flotation 782.9.1 General 782.9.2 System Configuration 792.9.3 Variables Affecting DAF Efficiency 802.9.4 Treatability Testing 802.9.5 Design Considerations 812.9.6 Instruments and Control 862.9.7 Piping 862.9.8 Chemicals Facilities 872.9.9 Material 872.9.10 Estimation of Air Concentration in DAF Systems 872.10 Granular-Media Filters 932.10.1 General 932.10.2 Filter Types and Applications 942.10.3 System Design Parameters 962.10.4 Cycle Time 982.10.5 Vessels and Appurtenances 992.10.6 Instrumentation and Controls 1003 Chemical Treatments 1033.1 Introduction 1033.1.1 Chemical Precipitation 1033.1.2 Chemical Coagulation 1033.1.3 Chemical Oxidation and Advanced Oxidation 1043.1.4 Ion Exchange 1043.1.5 Chemical Stabilization 1063.2 Definition and Application 1063.2.1 Activated Carbon Adsorption 1063.3 Chemical Precipitation 1093.4 Chemical Flocculation 1093.4.1 Definition and Applications 1103.4.2 Design Considerations 1123.4.3 Clarifiers 1123.4.4 Chemical Addition Systems 1153.5 Disinfection 1163.5.1 Chemical Agents 1163.5.2 Mechanical Means of Disinfection 1163.6 Chlorination 1183.6.1 Chlorine Dosages 1183.6.2 Design Considerations 1193.7 Water Monitoring 1203.7.1 Design Considerations for a Water Monitoring System 1213.8 On-Site Portable Instruments for Water Pollution Control 1213.8.1 Alternative Current Colorimeter 1223.8.2 Online Fixed Measurement or Continuous Monitoring 1223.8.3 Continuous Water Sampling and Clarification System 1223.8.4 Laboratory Instruments 1223.8.5 Soil Water Sampling 1253.8.6 Groundwater Sampling 1263.9 Physical Examination 1263.9.1 Color 1263.9.2 Conductivity 1273.9.3 Turbidity 1283.9.4 Determination of Metals 1283.9.5 Polarography 1283.9.6 Determination of Organic Constituents 1293.9.7 Combustible Gas Indicator 1303.9.8 Total Organic Carbon 1303.9.9 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 1313.9.10 Chemical Oxygen Demand 1313.9.11 Examination of Water and Wastewater Radioactivity 1313.10 Automated Laboratory Equipment for Monitoring Water and Wastewater 1333.10.1 Loading Losses 1333.10.2 Emissions to Water 1344 Biological Treatments 1374.1 Theory 1374.1.1 Biological Activated Carbon Process 1394.1.2 Biokinetic Theoretical Model 1404.2 Biological Treatment Processes 1424.2.1 Major Differences in Aerobic and Anaerobic Treatment 1444.2.2 Aerobic Processes 1464.2.3 Anaerobic Waste Treatment 1494.2.4 Aerobic-Anaerobic (Facultative) Waste Treatment 1494.3 Activated Sludge Units 1504.3.1 Applications 1514.3.2 Effects of Activated Sludge 1514.3.3 Feed Composition 1524.3.4 Process Design 1574.3.5 Design Considerations 1584.4 Trickling Filters 1604.4.1 Trickling Filter Process Design 1624.5 Rotating Biological Contactor System 1634.6 Sewage Oxidation Ponds 1645 Wastewater Treatment in the Unconventional Oil and Gas Industries 1675.1 Background 1675.1.1 Dissolved and Dispersed Hydrocarbon Components 1695.1.2 Dissolved Minerals 1695.1.3 Production Chemicals 1695.1.4 Produced Solids 1705.1.5 Dissolved Gases 1705.2 Toxicity Limitations of Coal Bed Water 1715.3 Shale Gas and CSG Produced Water: Treatment, and Disposal 1745.3.1 Evaporation Ponds 1745.3.2 Surface-Stream Disposal 1745.3.3 Ion Exchange 1765.3.4 Membrane Filtration Technology 1765.3.5 Freeze-Thaw Evaporation 1785.3.6 Adsorption 1785.3.7 Chemical Oxidation 1785.3.8 Filtration 1795.3.9 Constructed Wetlands 1795.3.10 Electrodialysis and Electrodialysis Reversal 1795.3.11 Deep Well Injection at Dedicated Onshore Sites 1805.3.12 Biological Aerated Filters 1805.3.13 Macro-porous Polymer Extraction Technology 1815.3.14 Thermal Technologies 1815.4 Re-thinking Technologies for Safer Facing 1855.5 Water Treatment for Oil Sands Mining 1915.5.1 Recycling and Water Treatment Options 1925.5.2 Oily Water Treatment in Oil Sands Mining 1936 Wastewater Sewer Systems 1996.1 Storm Water Sewer System 2006.2 Oily Water Sewer System 2006.3 Non-Oily Water Sewer System 2016.4 Chemical Sewer System(s) 2026.4.1 Disposal of Chemical Sewers 2026.4.2 Neutralization Systems 2026.4.3 Types of Chemical Waste 2026.5 Sanitary Sewer System 2036.6 Special Sewer Systems 2036.7 Effluent Sources and Disposal 2036.8 Particular Effluents in Refinery and Petrochemical Plants 2056.8.1 Caustic Scrubs (Heavy Oils) 2056.8.2 Desalter Wastewater 2056.8.3 Foul or Sour Water 2066.8.4 Spent Caustic Solutions 2066.8.5 MTBE or Leaded Contaminated Streams 2086.8.6 Benzene Contaminated Streams 2086.8.7 Spent Sulfuric Acid Products 2096.8.8 Nitrogen Base Components 2106.8.9 Cyanides 2106.8.10 Aluminum Chloride 2106.8.11 Polyelectrolyte 2106.8.12 Ferric Chloride 2116.8.13 Phosphoric Acid 2116.8.14 Hydrofluoric Acid 2116.8.15 Other Spent Catalysts 2116.8.16 Chemical Cleaning Waste 2116.8.17 Sulfur Solidification and Crushing Facilities, and Loading Systems Drainage 2116.8.18 Water Containing Solids, Emulsifying Agents, etc 2126.8.19 Heavy Viscous Oils Drainage 2126.8.20 Toxic Metal Contaminated Streams 2126.8.21 Solvent Processes Drainage 2126.8.22 Treating Processes Drainage 2126.9 Petrochemical Plant Special Effluents 2126.9.1 Summary of Disposal/Treatment Methods 2136.10 NGL, LNG, and LPG Area Effluents 2156.10.1 Liquefied Gas Spill 2156.11 Gas Treatment Facilities Effluents 2166.12 Effluents from Terminals, Depots, and Product Handling Areas 2166.13 General Considerations and Conditions for Release of Waste 2166.13.1 Characteristics and Composition of Waste 2166.13.2 Characteristics of the Discharge Site and Receiving Environment 2176.13.3 Availability of Waste Technologies 2176.14 Effluent Wastewater Characteristics 2186.14.1 Flow 2186.14.2 Temperature 2186.14.3 pH 2186.14.4 Oxygen Demand 2196.14.5 Phenol Content 2196.14.6 Sulfide Content 2196.14.7 Oil Content 2206.14.8 Light Hydrocarbon Solubility in Water 2206.14.9 Predicting the Mutual Solubility of Water–Hydrocarbon Systems 2216.15 Wastewater Emissions 2266.15.1 Point Source Discharge 2266.15.2 Effluent Permissible Concentrations 2286.16 Unsaturated Zone 2326.17 Site Assessment 2326.18 Gathering Release Information 2337 Sewage Treatment 2377.1 Sewage Effluents 2387.1.1 Receiving Water 2387.1.2 Final Effluents of Domestic Wastewater Plants 2397.2 Methods of Sewage Treatment: General 2397.2.1 Conventional Methods 2397.3 Choice of System: General 2397.4 Design of Sewage Treatment Plants: General Guidance 2407.5 Design of Small Sewage Treatment Plants 2407.5.1 Collection of Information 2407.6 Preliminary Treatment 2427.7 Primary and Secondary Settlement Tanks 2427.7.1 Capacities of Primary Settlement Tanks 2437.8 Sludge Digesters 2447.9 Drying Beds 2447.9.1 Secondary Settlement Tanks 2457.10 Biological Filters 2467.10.1 Distribution 2477.10.2 Volume of Filter 2477.10.3 Mineral Filter Media 2477.11 Activated Sludge Units 2487.12 Tertiary Treatment (Polishing) Processes 2497.13 Disposal of Final Effluent 2497.14 Advanced Wastewater Treatment 2507.14.1 Effects of Chemical Constituents in Wastewater 2507.14.2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Operations and Processes 2507.15 Effluent Disposal and Reuse 2507.15.1 Direct and Indirect Reuse of Wastewater 2508 Solid Waste Treatment and Disposal 2578.1 Basic Considerations 2578.1.1 Classification 2578.1.2 Methodology 2578.1.3 Sources 2588.1.4 Characteristics 2618.1.5 Quantities 2618.2 Sludge Handling, Treatment, and Reuse 2618.2.1 General 2618.2.2 Sludge and Scum Pumping 2648.2.3 Sludge Piping 2688.2.4 Preliminary Operation Facilities 2708.2.5 Thickening (Concentration) 2728.3 Stabilization 2748.3.1 Design Considerations 2758.3.2 Lime Stabilization 2758.3.3 Heat Treatment 2758.3.4 Anaerobic Sludge Digestion 2768.3.5 Composting 2788.4 Conditioning 2788.5 Disinfection 2788.6 Dewatering 2798.6.1 Sludge Dewatering Methods 2798.6.2 Vacuum Filtration 2798.6.3 Centrifugation 2818.6.4 Belt Filter Press 2828.6.5 Sludge Drying Beds 2828.6.6 Lagoons 2838.7 Heat Drying 2838.8 Thermal Reduction 2848.8.1 Thermal Reduction Process Applications 2848.9 Land Application of Sludge 2858.10 Chemical Fixation 2868.11 Gathering Contaminant-Specific Information 2868.12 Evaluating Contaminant Mobility 2888.13 Technology Selection 2888.13.1 Soil Venting 2898.13.2 Biorestoration 2898.13.3 Soil Flushing 2898.13.4 Hydraulic Methods 2908.13.5 Excavation 2908.14 Saturated Zone 2918.15 Site Assessment 2918.15.1 Gathering Contaminant-Specific Information 2918.15.2 Evaluating the Contaminant Phase in the Saturated Zone 2928.16 Evaluating Contaminant Mobility 2948.16.1 Mass of Dissolved and Sorbed Contaminants in Groundwater 2948.16.2 Extent of Contaminant Plume 2958.16.3 Mobility of Contamination in the Saturated Zone 2968.17 Setting Remediation Goals 2968.18 Technology Selection 2968.19 Dissolved Contaminants 2978.19.1 Trench Excavation 2978.19.2 Pumping Well Installation 2978.19.3 Recovery of Floating NAPL 2988.19.4 Treatment of Contaminants Dissolved in Groundwater 2988.20 Methodology for Pipeline Leak Consequence Evaluation 3008.20.1 Evaluation of Leak 3008.20.2 Potential Leak Rate and Leak Mass 3028.20.3 Environmental Consequence Factor 3048.21 Leak Detection Techniques 3068.21.1 Balancing Mass Input Versus Output 3078.21.2 Pressure and/or Flow Analysis 3108.21.3 Monitoring of Characteristic Signals Generated by a Leak 3108.21.4 Off-Line Leak Detection 3118.22 Leakproof Control of Pipeline Gas Piping, Tanks, and Technological Installations Using Radioactive Tracers 3128.22.1 Leak Detection in Liquid Pipelines 3138.22.2 Leak Detection in Gas Pipelines 3138.23 Final Sludge and Solids Conveyance, Storage, and Disposal 3148.23.1 Conveyance Methods 3158.23.2 Environmental Considerations in Sludge Transportation 3158.23.3 Sludge Storage 3158.23.4 Final Disposal 3168.23.5 Incineration 3178.23.6 Ash Handling and Disposal 3188.24 Disposal of Solid Waste 3188.24.1 Types of Waste 3188.24.2 Siting of Hazardous Waste Facilities 3198.24.3 Non-Hazardous Waste 3208.24.4 Sources, Segregation, Quantities, and Characteristics of Solid Waste in Refineries 3218.24.5 Source Reduction Methods 3238.24.6 Resource Recovery and Waste Minimization 3248.24.7 Hazardous Waste Reduction 3288.24.8 Treatment Prior to Ultimate Disposal 3308.24.9 Disposal of Waste Generated in Drilling Wells 3368.24.10 General Sampling Considerations 3378.24.11 Air Monitoring of Waste for Employee Protection 3438.24.12 Procedures 3448.24.13 Hazards 3458.24.14 Quality Assurance Considerations 3468.25 Emissions to Land 3468.25.1 Groundwater Monitoring 3468.25.2 Spills 3478.26 Evaluation of Soil Infiltration Problems 3488.26.1 Predictive Tool 3488.26.2 Sample Calculations for Practice Engineers 351Definitions and Terminology 353Bibliography 383Index 403

ALIREZA BAHADORI, PhD, CEng, MIChemE, CPEng, MIEAust, RPEQ, NER is a research staff member in the School of Environment, Science and Engineering at Southern Cross University, Australia, and Managing Director and CEO of Australian Oil and Gas Services, Pty. Ltd. He received his PhD from Curtin University, Western Australia and has held various positions in the process and petroleum industry for more than twenty years. He has been involved in many large scale oil and gas projects, and has written extensively on the field.

• Preface xvAbout the Author xix1 Wastewater Treatment 11.1 Characteristics of Wastewater 21.1.1 Wastewater Classifications 51.1.2 Water Pollution Terminals 51.1.3 Suspended Solids 61.1.4 Heavy Metals 61.1.5 Dissolved Inorganic Solids 71.1.6 Toxic Organic Compounds 71.1.7 Surfactants 71.1.8 Priority Pollutants 91.1.9 Volatile Organic Compounds 91.2 Treatment Stages 91.2.1 Sources of Wastewater 111.2.2 Discharge Options and Quality Requirements 111.3 Effluent Water Pollution Control 131.3.1 Spill Prevention and Control 141.3.2 Groundwater Pollution Control 161.4 Treatment Processes 181.4.1 Wastewater Pollution Oil Terminals 201.4.2 Simple Gravity Separation 211.4.3 Residual Suspended Matter 211.4.4 Selection of Treatment Processes 221.5 Siting and Design 241.5.1 Aquatic Ecosystems 251.5.2 Terrestrial Ecosystems 251.5.3 Wetland Ecosystems 271.5.4 Land Use 281.5.5 Water Pollution Control 281.6 Sources of Effluent in the Petrochemical Industry 291.6.1 Water Pollution 291.6.2 Cooling Water 291.6.3 Washing Water and Process Water 291.6.4 Typical Pollutants in the Petrochemical Industry 291.6.5 Petrochemical Waste Treatment 301.6.6 Fertilizer 311.7 Effect of Pollution 331.7.1 Major Pollutants 331.8 Olefin Plants 341.8.1 Polymeric Plants 351.8.2 Polyvinyl Chloride Plants 361.8.3 Aromatic Plants 371.9 Environmental Protection for Industrial Waste 371.9.1 Important Factors in Process Selection 371.10 Chemical Oxygen Demand in Wastewater Systems 441.10.1 Determination of COD 441.10.2 Calculation of Theoretical Oxygen Demand 452 Physical Unit Operations 472.1 Flow Measurement 472.2 Screening 472.3 Comminution 502.4 Grit Removal 502.5 Gravity Separation 512.5.1 General 512.5.2 Application 522.5.3 Oil–Water Separators: General Design Considerations 532.5.4 Conventional, Rectangular Channel (API) Separators 532.5.5 Parallel-Plate Separators 652.5.6 Oil Traps 672.5.7 Oil Holding Basins 682.6 Flow Equalization 682.6.1 Application and Location 682.6.2 Volume Requirements 692.7 Mixing 702.7.1 Description and Type 702.7.2 Application 702.8 Sedimentation 712.8.1 Sedimentation Theory 712.8.2 Application and Type 732.8.3 Design Considerations 742.8.4 Number of Basins 752.8.5 Inlet Arrangements 752.8.6 Short-Circuiting 762.8.7 Outlet Arrangements 762.8.8 Detention Time 762.8.9 Surface Loading Rate 762.8.10 Factors Affecting Sedimentation 762.9 Dissolved Air Flotation 782.9.1 General 782.9.2 System Configuration 792.9.3 Variables Affecting DAF Efficiency 802.9.4 Treatability Testing 802.9.5 Design Considerations 812.9.6 Instruments and Control 862.9.7 Piping 862.9.8 Chemicals Facilities 872.9.9 Material 872.9.10 Estimation of Air Concentration in DAF Systems 872.10 Granular-Media Filters 932.10.1 General 932.10.2 Filter Types and Applications 942.10.3 System Design Parameters 962.10.4 Cycle Time 982.10.5 Vessels and Appurtenances 992.10.6 Instrumentation and Controls 1003 Chemical Treatments 1033.1 Introduction 1033.1.1 Chemical Precipitation 1033.1.2 Chemical Coagulation 1033.1.3 Chemical Oxidation and Advanced Oxidation 1043.1.4 Ion Exchange 1043.1.5 Chemical Stabilization 1063.2 Definition and Application 1063.2.1 Activated Carbon Adsorption 1063.3 Chemical Precipitation 1093.4 Chemical Flocculation 1093.4.1 Definition and Applications 1103.4.2 Design Considerations 1123.4.3 Clarifiers 1123.4.4 Chemical Addition Systems 1153.5 Disinfection 1163.5.1 Chemical Agents 1163.5.2 Mechanical Means of Disinfection 1163.6 Chlorination 1183.6.1 Chlorine Dosages 1183.6.2 Design Considerations 1193.7 Water Monitoring 1203.7.1 Design Considerations for a Water Monitoring System 1213.8 On-Site Portable Instruments for Water Pollution Control 1213.8.1 Alternative Current Colorimeter 1223.8.2 Online Fixed Measurement or Continuous Monitoring 1223.8.3 Continuous Water Sampling and Clarification System 1223.8.4 Laboratory Instruments 1223.8.5 Soil Water Sampling 1253.8.6 Groundwater Sampling 1263.9 Physical Examination 1263.9.1 Color 1263.9.2 Conductivity 1273.9.3 Turbidity 1283.9.4 Determination of Metals 1283.9.5 Polarography 1283.9.6 Determination of Organic Constituents 1293.9.7 Combustible Gas Indicator 1303.9.8 Total Organic Carbon 1303.9.9 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 1313.9.10 Chemical Oxygen Demand 1313.9.11 Examination of Water and Wastewater Radioactivity 1313.10 Automated Laboratory Equipment for Monitoring Water and Wastewater 1333.10.1 Loading Losses 1333.10.2 Emissions to Water 1344 Biological Treatments 1374.1 Theory 1374.1.1 Biological Activated Carbon Process 1394.1.2 Biokinetic Theoretical Model 1404.2 Biological Treatment Processes 1424.2.1 Major Differences in Aerobic and Anaerobic Treatment 1444.2.2 Aerobic Processes 1464.2.3 Anaerobic Waste Treatment 1494.2.4 Aerobic-Anaerobic (Facultative) Waste Treatment 1494.3 Activated Sludge Units 1504.3.1 Applications 1514.3.2 Effects of Activated Sludge 1514.3.3 Feed Composition 1524.3.4 Process Design 1574.3.5 Design Considerations 1584.4 Trickling Filters 1604.4.1 Trickling Filter Process Design 1624.5 Rotating Biological Contactor System 1634.6 Sewage Oxidation Ponds 1645 Wastewater Treatment in the Unconventional Oil and Gas Industries 1675.1 Background 1675.1.1 Dissolved and Dispersed Hydrocarbon Components 1695.1.2 Dissolved Minerals 1695.1.3 Production Chemicals 1695.1.4 Produced Solids 1705.1.5 Dissolved Gases 1705.2 Toxicity Limitations of Coal Bed Water 1715.3 Shale Gas and CSG Produced Water: Treatment, and Disposal 1745.3.1 Evaporation Ponds 1745.3.2 Surface-Stream Disposal 1745.3.3 Ion Exchange 1765.3.4 Membrane Filtration Technology 1765.3.5 Freeze-Thaw Evaporation 1785.3.6 Adsorption 1785.3.7 Chemical Oxidation 1785.3.8 Filtration 1795.3.9 Constructed Wetlands 1795.3.10 Electrodialysis and Electrodialysis Reversal 1795.3.11 Deep Well Injection at Dedicated Onshore Sites 1805.3.12 Biological Aerated Filters 1805.3.13 Macro-porous Polymer Extraction Technology 1815.3.14 Thermal Technologies 1815.4 Re-thinking Technologies for Safer Facing 1855.5 Water Treatment for Oil Sands Mining 1915.5.1 Recycling and Water Treatment Options 1925.5.2 Oily Water Treatment in Oil Sands Mining 1936 Wastewater Sewer Systems 1996.1 Storm Water Sewer System 2006.2 Oily Water Sewer System 2006.3 Non-Oily Water Sewer System 2016.4 Chemical Sewer System(s) 2026.4.1 Disposal of Chemical Sewers 2026.4.2 Neutralization Systems 2026.4.3 Types of Chemical Waste 2026.5 Sanitary Sewer System 2036.6 Special Sewer Systems 2036.7 Effluent Sources and Disposal 2036.8 Particular Effluents in Refinery and Petrochemical Plants 2056.8.1 Caustic Scrubs (Heavy Oils) 2056.8.2 Desalter Wastewater 2056.8.3 Foul or Sour Water 2066.8.4 Spent Caustic Solutions 2066.8.5 MTBE or Leaded Contaminated Streams 2086.8.6 Benzene Contaminated Streams 2086.8.7 Spent Sulfuric Acid Products 2096.8.8 Nitrogen Base Components 2106.8.9 Cyanides 2106.8.10 Aluminum Chloride 2106.8.11 Polyelectrolyte 2106.8.12 Ferric Chloride 2116.8.13 Phosphoric Acid 2116.8.14 Hydrofluoric Acid 2116.8.15 Other Spent Catalysts 2116.8.16 Chemical Cleaning Waste 2116.8.17 Sulfur Solidification and Crushing Facilities, and Loading Systems Drainage 2116.8.18 Water Containing Solids, Emulsifying Agents, etc 2126.8.19 Heavy Viscous Oils Drainage 2126.8.20 Toxic Metal Contaminated Streams 2126.8.21 Solvent Processes Drainage 2126.8.22 Treating Processes Drainage 2126.9 Petrochemical Plant Special Effluents 2126.9.1 Summary of Disposal/Treatment Methods 2136.10 NGL, LNG, and LPG Area Effluents 2156.10.1 Liquefied Gas Spill 2156.11 Gas Treatment Facilities Effluents 2166.12 Effluents from Terminals, Depots, and Product Handling Areas 2166.13 General Considerations and Conditions for Release of Waste 2166.13.1 Characteristics and Composition of Waste 2166.13.2 Characteristics of the Discharge Site and Receiving Environment 2176.13.3 Availability of Waste Technologies 2176.14 Effluent Wastewater Characteristics 2186.14.1 Flow 2186.14.2 Temperature 2186.14.3 pH 2186.14.4 Oxygen Demand 2196.14.5 Phenol Content 2196.14.6 Sulfide Content 2196.14.7 Oil Content 2206.14.8 Light Hydrocarbon Solubility in Water 2206.14.9 Predicting the Mutual Solubility of Water–Hydrocarbon Systems 2216.15 Wastewater Emissions 2266.15.1 Point Source Discharge 2266.15.2 Effluent Permissible Concentrations 2286.16 Unsaturated Zone 2326.17 Site Assessment 2326.18 Gathering Release Information 2337 Sewage Treatment 2377.1 Sewage Effluents 2387.1.1 Receiving Water 2387.1.2 Final Effluents of Domestic Wastewater Plants 2397.2 Methods of Sewage Treatment: General 2397.2.1 Conventional Methods 2397.3 Choice of System: General 2397.4 Design of Sewage Treatment Plants: General Guidance 2407.5 Design of Small Sewage Treatment Plants 2407.5.1 Collection of Information 2407.6 Preliminary Treatment 2427.7 Primary and Secondary Settlement Tanks 2427.7.1 Capacities of Primary Settlement Tanks 2437.8 Sludge Digesters 2447.9 Drying Beds 2447.9.1 Secondary Settlement Tanks 2457.10 Biological Filters 2467.10.1 Distribution 2477.10.2 Volume of Filter 2477.10.3 Mineral Filter Media 2477.11 Activated Sludge Units 2487.12 Tertiary Treatment (Polishing) Processes 2497.13 Disposal of Final Effluent 2497.14 Advanced Wastewater Treatment 2507.14.1 Effects of Chemical Constituents in Wastewater 2507.14.2 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Operations and Processes 2507.15 Effluent Disposal and Reuse 2507.15.1 Direct and Indirect Reuse of Wastewater 2508 Solid Waste Treatment and Disposal 2578.1 Basic Considerations 2578.1.1 Classification 2578.1.2 Methodology 2578.1.3 Sources 2588.1.4 Characteristics 2618.1.5 Quantities 2618.2 Sludge Handling, Treatment, and Reuse 2618.2.1 General 2618.2.2 Sludge and Scum Pumping 2648.2.3 Sludge Piping 2688.2.4 Preliminary Operation Facilities 2708.2.5 Thickening (Concentration) 2728.3 Stabilization 2748.3.1 Design Considerations 2758.3.2 Lime Stabilization 2758.3.3 Heat Treatment 2758.3.4 Anaerobic Sludge Digestion 2768.3.5 Composting 2788.4 Conditioning 2788.5 Disinfection 2788.6 Dewatering 2798.6.1 Sludge Dewatering Methods 2798.6.2 Vacuum Filtration 2798.6.3 Centrifugation 2818.6.4 Belt Filter Press 2828.6.5 Sludge Drying Beds 2828.6.6 Lagoons 2838.7 Heat Drying 2838.8 Thermal Reduction 2848.8.1 Thermal Reduction Process Applications 2848.9 Land Application of Sludge 2858.10 Chemical Fixation 2868.11 Gathering Contaminant-Specific Information 2868.12 Evaluating Contaminant Mobility 2888.13 Technology Selection 2888.13.1 Soil Venting 2898.13.2 Biorestoration 2898.13.3 Soil Flushing 2898.13.4 Hydraulic Methods 2908.13.5 Excavation 2908.14 Saturated Zone 2918.15 Site Assessment 2918.15.1 Gathering Contaminant-Specific Information 2918.15.2 Evaluating the Contaminant Phase in the Saturated Zone 2928.16 Evaluating Contaminant Mobility 2948.16.1 Mass of Dissolved and Sorbed Contaminants in Groundwater 2948.16.2 Extent of Contaminant Plume 2958.16.3 Mobility of Contamination in the Saturated Zone 2968.17 Setting Remediation Goals 2968.18 Technology Selection 2968.19 Dissolved Contaminants 2978.19.1 Trench Excavation 2978.19.2 Pumping Well Installation 2978.19.3 Recovery of Floating NAPL 2988.19.4 Treatment of Contaminants Dissolved in Groundwater 2988.20 Methodology for Pipeline Leak Consequence Evaluation 3008.20.1 Evaluation of Leak 3008.20.2 Potential Leak Rate and Leak Mass 3028.20.3 Environmental Consequence Factor 3048.21 Leak Detection Techniques 3068.21.1 Balancing Mass Input Versus Output 3078.21.2 Pressure and/or Flow Analysis 3108.21.3 Monitoring of Characteristic Signals Generated by a Leak 3108.21.4 Off-Line Leak Detection 3118.22 Leakproof Control of Pipeline Gas Piping, Tanks, and Technological Installations Using Radioactive Tracers 3128.22.1 Leak Detection in Liquid Pipelines 3138.22.2 Leak Detection in Gas Pipelines 3138.23 Final Sludge and Solids Conveyance, Storage, and Disposal 3148.23.1 Conveyance Methods 3158.23.2 Environmental Considerations in Sludge Transportation 3158.23.3 Sludge Storage 3158.23.4 Final Disposal 3168.23.5 Incineration 3178.23.6 Ash Handling and Disposal 3188.24 Disposal of Solid Waste 3188.24.1 Types of Waste 3188.24.2 Siting of Hazardous Waste Facilities 3198.24.3 Non-Hazardous Waste 3208.24.4 Sources, Segregation, Quantities, and Characteristics of Solid Waste in Refineries 3218.24.5 Source Reduction Methods 3238.24.6 Resource Recovery and Waste Minimization 3248.24.7 Hazardous Waste Reduction 3288.24.8 Treatment Prior to Ultimate Disposal 3308.24.9 Disposal of Waste Generated in Drilling Wells 3368.24.10 General Sampling Considerations 3378.24.11 Air Monitoring of Waste for Employee Protection 3438.24.12 Procedures 3448.24.13 Hazards 3458.24.14 Quality Assurance Considerations 3468.25 Emissions to Land 3468.25.1 Groundwater Monitoring 3468.25.2 Spills 3478.26 Evaluation of Soil Infiltration Problems 3488.26.1 Predictive Tool 3488.26.2 Sample Calculations for Practice Engineers 351Definitions and Terminology 353Bibliography 383Index 403