Qualitative Research in Nursing and Healthcare

Immy Holloway is Professor Emerita in the Faculty of Health and Social Sciences at Bournemouth University in the United Kingdom. Kathleen Galvin is Professor of Nursing Practice in the School of Health Sciences at the University of Brighton, United Kingdom.

• Preface xiiiAbout the Authors xvAcknowledgement xviiPart One: Introduction to Qualitative Research: Starting Out1 The Essentials of Qualitative Research 3What is qualitative research? 3The characteristics of qualitative research 3The primacy of data 4Contextualisation 5Immersion in the setting 5The ‘emic’ perspective 6Thick description 7The research relationship 8Insider/outsider research 9Reflexivity 9The place of theory in qualitative research 11The use of qualitative research in healthcare 11Choosing an approach for health research 13References 14Further Reading 162 The Paradigm Debate: The Place of Qualitative Research 17Theoretical frameworks and ontological position 17The natural science model: positivism objectivism and value neutrality 18The paradigm debate 19The interpretive/descriptive approach 21Focus on postmodernism and social constructionism 23Conflicting or complementary perspectives? 24Final comment 25References 25Further Reading 263 Initial Steps in the Research Process 27Selecting and formulating the research question 27Practical issues 31The research design and choice of approach 31The literature review 32Writing a research proposal 35Access and entry to the setting 41Summary 44References 44Further Reading 454 Ethical Issues 47The foundational ethical framework for research 49Ethics in qualitative research 52Interviews and observations 53The participant information sheet 60Researching one’s peers 62The research relationship 62Research in the researcher’s workplace 64The role of research ethics committees 64Reviewing the research project 66Key ethical questions: audiotaped interviews 66Summary 70References 70Further Reading 725 Supervision of Qualitative Research 73The responsibilities of supervisor and student 74Writing and relationships 76Practical aspects of supervision 78Single or joint supervision 79Problems with supervision 80Academic problems 81Final notes 82Summary 83References 83Further Reading 83Part Two: Data Collection and Sampling6 Interviewing 87Interviews as sources of data 87The interview process 88Types of interview 89Contents viiPractical considerations 92Recording interview data 96The interviewer–participant relationship 98Problematic issues and challenges in interviewing 99Ethical issues in interviewing 103Summary 105References 105Further Reading 1067 Observation and Documents as Sources of Data 107Participant observation 107The origins of participant observation 108Immersion in culture and setting 108Types of observation 111Problems in observation 116Technical procedures and practical hints 117Documentary sources of data 118Summary 122References 122Further Reading 1238 Focus Group Research (FGR) 125The nature and features of focus group research 125The origin and purpose of focus groups 127Focus group research in healthcare 127Sample size and composition 128Conducting focus group discussions 131Research with online or virtual focus groups 133Recording analysing and reporting focus group data 134Critical comments on focus group research in healthcare 138Summary 138References 139Further Reading 1409 Sampling Strategies 141Sampling decisions 141A variety of sampling types 145Inclusion and exclusion criteria 150Sampling parameters 150Sample size 151Saturation 152Giving a label to the participants 153Summary 154References 154Further Reading 155Part Three: Approaches in Qualitative Research10 Ethnography 159The development of ethnography 160Ethnographic methods 162Ethnography in healthcare 163The main features of ethnography 165Fieldwork 169Doing and writing ethnography 172Analysis 172Interpretation 174Pitfalls and problems 175Summary 176References 176Further Reading 17811 Grounded Theory Methodology 179History and origin 180Symbolic interactionism 181The main features of grounded theory 181Data collection theoretical sampling and analysis 183The three main approaches 189Using the literature 190Integration of theory 192Theoretical memos and fieldnotes 192Pitfalls and problems 193Which approach for the health researcher? 196Summary 197References 197Further Reading 19912 Narrative Inquiry 201The nature of narrative and story 201Narrative research 202Narratives in health research 202The everyday story 206Autobiographical and biographical stories 206Cultural stories 207Collective stories 207Illness narratives 208The restitution narrative 209The chaos narrative 210The quest narrative 210Narrative interviewing 211Narrative analysis 212Contents ixThematic and holistic analysis 213Structural analysis 214Dialogic/performance analysis 215Visual analysis 216Ongoing debates about narrative 216Summary 218References 218Further Reading 22013 Phenomenology 221Intentionality and the early stages of phenomenology 222Phases and history of the movement 223The German phase 224The French phase 226Schools of phenomenology 227The phenomenological research process: doing phenomenology 228Grounding 228Reflexivity and positional knowledge 229Humanisation and the language of experience 229Phenomenology and health research 231Topics for phenomenological approaches 232Choice of approach: descriptive or interpretive phenomenology 233Procedures for data collection and analysis 235Summary 238References 238Further Reading 24114 Action Research 243The origins of action research 244Critical social theory 245Action research in healthcare 246The main features of action research 247The methodological continuum 248Practical steps 250Trustworthiness in AR 252Problems and critique 253Summary 255References 255Further Reading 25615 Additional Approaches 259Case study research 259Overview 260Features and purpose of case study research 260Conversation analysis 262The origins of conversation analysis 263The use of conversation analysis 263Discourse analysis 265Critical discourse analysis (CDA) 267Performative social science 269PSS in health research 270Summary 271References 272Further Reading 275Discourse Analysis 275Further Reading 276Performative Social Science 276Further Reading 277Part Four: Data Analysis and Completion16 Data Analysis: Strategies and Procedures 281Transcribing and sorting 283Taking notes and writing analytic memos 284Ordering and organising the data 285Analytical styles 286Coding and categorizing 287Thematic analysis 288Meaning and Gestalt 289Problems of QDA 289Inferential leaps and ‘premature closure’ 289Collaboration in the process of analysis and interpretation 290Computer- aided analysis of qualitative data 290The reasons for computer use 291Storing annotating and retrieving texts 292Locating words phrases or segments of data 292Naming or labelling 292Sorting and organising 292Identifying data units 293Preparing diagrams 293Approaches to qualitative computer analysis 293Language- oriented 293Descriptive/interpretive approaches 293Theory building 294The practicalities of using computer- aided analysis 294Advantages of computer use 295Problems and critique of computer analysis 295Summary 296References 297Further Reading 29817 Establishing Quality: Validity and Trustworthiness 299Quality 299Conventional criteria 300Rigour 300Reliability 300Validity 301Generalisability or external validity 302Objectivity and subjectivity 303The concept of validity in qualitative research 304An alternative perspective: trustworthiness 305Dependability 305Credibility 305Transferability 305Confirmability 306Authenticity 306Strategies to ensure trustworthiness 307Member checking 307Searching for negative cases and alternative explanations 309Peer review 310Triangulation 310The audit or decision trail 311Thick description 312Prolonged engagement 312Reflexivity 313Quality and creativity 313Summary 314References 314Further Reading 31518 Writing up and Publishing Qualitative Research 317The research account 317Use of the first person 318The format of the report 319Title 320Abstract 321Acknowledgement and dedication 323Contents 323Introduction 323Entry issues and ethical considerations 324Methodology and research design 325Findings/results and discussion 326Conclusion and implications 328Referencing 330Appendices 330Critical assessment and evaluation 331Guide to research evaluation 331Publishing and presenting the research 332Books 333Articles 333Types of article 334Alternative forms of presenting or disseminating the research 335Summary 336References 336Further Reading 337Final Note 339Glossary 341Index 347