Dr Sanjeev Sharma has been teaching as an Assistant Professor in the Centre for Study of Regional Development, School of Social Science and Concurrent Faculty in the Special Centre for E-Learning at Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi-India. He is also Assistant Director, UGC-HRDC-JNU, New Delhi. Over the past one and half decades he has worked in different academic and research institute viz. Dr. H.S. Gour Central University of Sagar, IISER, Mohali, WWF-India and G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE). He has done M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D. (HPU, Shimla) Post Doctorate (IISER, Mohali) and PG Diploma in Environmental Law and Policy (NLU, Delhi). His research expertise in human ecology; wetlands conservation; environmental impact assessment & management; policy planning and nature conservation; science society and nature study etc. He was awarded first Dr. Saminderjeet Singh Young Geographers National Awrard for 2011 by Association of Punjab Geographers, Post Doc. Fellow from UGC & IISER, Mohali and UNESCO-IHE Fellowship. Presently he is an External Expert Member in the Himachal Pradesh State Wetlands Authority, Govt. of Himachal Pradesh. He has more than 35 international and national publications to his credit.Dr Pardeep Singh is presently working as an Assistant Professor (Department of Environmental Science, PGDAV College, University of Delhi New Delhi India). He obtained his Masters degree from Department of Environmental Science Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi India and doctorate from Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) Varanasi. He has published more than 65 papers in the international journals in the fields of various environmental emerging issues. He has edited more than 30 books with various international publishers like Springer, Elsevier, CRC and Wiley.

• Preface xiii         List of Contributors xvii1 Global Wetlands: Categorization, Distribution and Global Scenario 11.1 Wetlands Definition, Categorization and Classification Criteria 11.1.1 Wetlands- Categorization and Classification 31.1.2 Human- Made Wetlands 51.2 Importance of Wetland Ecosystem 51.3 Spatial Distribution and Potential of Global Wetlands 71.4 Status and Impacts on the Wetlands Ecosystem 81.4.1 Conservation Measures and Future Strategies 101.4.2 Conclusion and Recommendation 11Acknowledgements 13References 132 Ramsar Convention: History, Structure, Operations, and Relevance 172.1 Background 172.2 The Ramsar Convention 182.3 The Convention Text 192.4 Wetland Definition and Classification 192.5 Mission of the Convention 222.6 Structural Framework of the Convention 222.7 Operational Framework of the Convention 252.7.1 Convention Membership 252.7.2 Ramsar Regions 262.7.3 National Ramsar Committees 302.7.4 The Montreux Record 312.7.5 Ramsar Strategic Plan 312.7.6 Three Pillars of Ramsar Convention 312.7.7 The Convention Budget 322.8 External Partnerships and Synergies 332.9 Education and Outreach 352.9.1 Communication, Education, Participation, and Awareness (CEPA) 352.9.2 World Wetlands Day 362.10 Legal Status 362.11 Effectiveness of the Convention 37References 383 Ecological Importance of Wetland Systems 403.1 Introduction 403.2 Importance of Wetlands in Flood Control 403.3 Role of Wetlands in Groundwater Replenishment 413.4 Role of Wetlands in Stabilization and Storm Protection of Shorelines 423.5 Role of Wetlands in Sediment and Nutrient Retention 433.6 Role of Wetlands in Water Purification 443.7 Biodiversity of Wetlands 453.8 Wetland Products 463.9 Sociocultural Values of Wetlands 463.10 Wetlands in Relation to Recreation and Tourism 473.11 Wetland and Climate Change 483.12 Summary 49Acknowledgments 50References 504 Ecological and Societal Importance of Wetlands: A Case Study of North Bihar (India) 554.1 Introduction 554.2 Geographical and District-Wise Distribution of Wetlands in North Bihar 584.2.1 Kabartal 604.2.2 Baraila Jheel 604.2.3 Kusheshwar Asthan 624.2.4 Jagatpur Wetland 624.2.5 Moti Jheel 634.2.6 Gogabeel Pakshi Vihar 644.3 Wetlands: Promoters of Sustainable Livelihood and Services 644.4 North Bihar Wetland Biodiversity: Status and Role 654.5 Urbanization, Pollution, and Climate Change Impacts 714.6 Legal Framework, Policies, and Challenges 774.7 Conclusion 79Acknowledgments 80References 805 Recognizing Economic Values of Wetland Ecosystem Services: A Study of Emerging Role of Monetary Evaluation of Chandubi Ecosystem and Biodiversity 875.1 Introduction 875.2 Methodology of Ecosystem Valuation 905.2.1 Market Prices – Revealed Willingness to Pay 905.2.1.1 Market Price Method 915.2.1.2 Productivity Method 915.2.1.3 Hedonic Pricing Method 925.2.1.4 Travel Cost Method 935.2.2 Circumstantial Evidence – Imputed Willingness to Pay 945.2.2.1 Damage Cost Avoided, Replacement Cost, and Substitute Cost Methods 945.2.3 Surveys – Expressed Willingness to Pay 955.2.3.1 Contingent Valuation Method 955.2.3.2 Contingent Choice Method 965.3 Ecosystem Services of Wetland 975.4 Chandubi Wetland: Introduction, Impact, and Introspection 975.5 Scaling up Wetland Conservation, Wise Use, and Restoration for Achieving Sustainable Development Goals 1035.6 Wetlands’ Role in Achieving SDGs 1045.7 Conclusion 108Acknowledgments 109References 1096 Ecosystem Services of Lagoon Wetlands System in India 1116.1 Introduction 1116.2 Chilika Lagoon 1126.3 Ecosystem Services Provided by Chilika Lagoon 1126.3.1 Provisioning Services 1146.3.1.1 Commercial Fisheries 1146.3.1.2 Other Flora and Fauna of Chilika Lagoon 1146.3.1.3 Navigation 1156.3.2 Regulating Services 1156.3.3 Cultural Services 1166.3.4 Supporting Services 1166.4 Threats and Management of Chilika Lagoon 1176.5 Pulicat Lagoon 1186.6 Ecosystem Services Provided by Pulicat Lagoon 1196.6.1 Provisioning Services 1196.6.1.1 Fisheries in Pulicat 1196.6.2 Aquatic Flora and Fauna of Pulicat 1206.6.3 Regulatory Services Provided by Pulicat Lagoon 1206.6.4 Historical and Cultural Importance of Pulicat Lagoon 1206.6.5 Supporting Services Provided by Pulicat Lagoon 1216.6.6 Threats and Management of Pulicat Lagoon 1216.7 Conclusion 123Acknowledgments 124References 1247 Sustainable Practices for Conservation of Wetland Ecosystem 1297.1 Introduction 1297.2 Role of Wetlands in the Ecosystem 1307.3 Challenges to Conserve Wetlands 1337.4 Wetland Management and Sustainable Development 1347.5 Future Strategies for Wetland Conservation 1357.6 Development of the Legal Framework 1357.7 Technology Intervention with Baseline Data for Wetland Conservation 1367.8 Development of National Action Plans 1367.9 Promotion of Research for Conservation Setup 1367.10 Conclusion 136References 1378 Assessing the Benefits, Threats and Conservation of Reservoir-Based Wetlands in the Eastern Himalayan River Basin 1408.1 Introduction 1408.1.1 RBWs’ Significance and Ignorance 1418.1.2 RBWs in India 1428.1.3 The RBWs in the Eastern Himalayas 1438.2 The RBWs in the Tista Basin 1448.3 Benefits of Reservoirs as Wetland 1458.3.1 Ecosystem Services Provided by the RBWs 1458.4 Assessment of Ecosystem Services in the Tista Basin Provided by the RBWs 1478.5 Adverse Impact of RBWs 1498.5.1 Construction and Function of RBWs Across the World 1498.5.2 Adverse Impact of RBWs in the Eastern Himalayas 1498.6 Assessment of Impact on the Tista basin 1508.7 Potential Challenges and Threats to RBW 1528.7.1 Anthropogenic Activities 1528.7.2 Variations in Water Level 1538.8 Climate Change 1538.9 Management and Conservation of RBWs 1548.10 Conclusion 155References 1569 Spatiotemporal Evaluation of Causes and Consequences of Wetland Degradation 1629.1 Introduction 1629.2 Classification of Wetlands 1629.3 Causes of and Consequence of Wetland Degradation 1649.3.1 Natural Causes 1649.3.1.1 Storms Surge 1659.3.1.2 Disintegration of Barrier Islands 1659.3.1.3 Flooding and Salinization 1659.3.1.4 Herbivory 1669.3.1.5 Climate Change 1669.3.1.6 Major Shifts in a River’s Course 1669.3.2 Anthropogenic Causes of Wetland Loss 1669.3.2.1 Infrastructure Development 1679.3.2.2 Land Conversion 1679.3.2.3 Water Withdrawal 1689.3.2.4 Eutrophication and Pollution 1689.3.2.5 Overharvesting and Overexploitation 1689.3.2.6 Introduction of Invasive Species 1689.3.2.7 Others 1699.4 Consequences of Wetland Loss 1709.4.1 Loss of Biodiversity 1709.4.2 Decrease in Water Level 1719.4.3 Loss of Habitat 1719.4.4 Climate Change 1719.4.5 Emission of Greenhouse Gases 1719.4.6 Erosion of River Delta 172References 17210 The Status of Current Knowledge, Distribution, and Conservation Challenges of Wetland Ecosystems in Kashmir Himalaya, India 17510.1 Introduction 17510.2 Wetlands Over North-Western Kashmir Himalaya 17610.2.1 Current Status 17610.2.2 Wetland Classification 17810.2.2.1 High Altitude Wetlands (HAWs) 18210.2.2.2 Mid-Altitude Wetlands (MAWs) 18210.2.3 Wetland Distribution and Extent in Kashmir Himalaya 18210.3 Wetland Functions and Values 18410.3.1 Regulatory functions 18410.3.1.1 Regulation of Global Climate 18410.3.1.2 Groundwater Recharge and Discharge 18410.3.1.3 Water Purification 18510.3.1.4 Natural Hazard and Flood Control 18510.3.1.5 Sediment Retention 18510.3.2 Provisioning Functions 18510.3.2.1 Food Resources 18510.3.2.2 Raw Materials 18610.3.2.3 Medicinal Resources 18610.3.3 Cultural Functions 18610.3.3.1 Tourism, Aesthetics, and Recreation 18610.3.3.2 Scientific and Educational Information 18610.3.4 Supporting Functions 18710.3.4.1 Biodiversity Habitats 18710.3.4.2 Nutrient Cycling 18710.3.5 Economic Values 18710.4 Drivers of Wetland Degradation 18710.4.1 Land System Changes 18810.4.2 Pollution 18910.4.3 Floating Agriculture 19010.4.4 Siltation 19010.4.5 Roads and Railways 19010.4.6 Plantations 19010.4.7 Overexploitation 19110.4.8 Weed Infestation 19110.4.9 Hunting and Poaching 19110.4.10 Land Reclamation 19110.5 Wetland Conservation in Kashmir Himalaya 19110.5.1 Legal Framework 19210.5.2 Conservation Challenges 19310.5.3 Conservation Strategies 19310.5.4 Knowledge Gaps 19310.6 Conclusion 195Acknowledgments 195References 19511 Heavy Metal Pollution in Coastal Environment and Its Remediation Using Mangroves: An Eco-sustainable Approach 20111.1 Introduction 20111.2 Pollution in Mangrove Habitats: A Global Concern 20211.3 Heavy Metal Cycling in the Mangrove Ecosystem 20311.4 Heavy Metal Transport, Uptake, and Release 20411.5 Bioavailability and Concentration of Heavy Metals in the Sediments 20411.6 Factors Affecting Heavy Metals in the Sediment 20511.7 Heavy Metal Accumulation in Mangrove Plants 21011.8 Heavy Metal Remediation Potential of Mangroves 21011.9 Distribution of Heavy Metals in Different Plant Tissues of Mangrove Species 21411.10 Application of Phytoremediation to Coastal Pollution Remediation 21411.10.1 Phytoremediation Using Constructed Wetlands (CWs) Technology 21411.10.2 Phytoremediation Using Constructed Floating Bed 21611.11 Eco-remediation Technologies as Sustainable Natural Treatment Systems for Waste Water Treatment 21711.12 Conclusion and Future Prospects 217References 21812 Mangrove Forests: Distribution, Species Diversity, Roles, Threats and Conservation Strategies 22912.1 Introduction 22912.2 Mangrove Species Diversity 23012.3 Geographical Distribution of Mangroves Across the Globe and India 23712.4 Important Roles of Mangroves 23712.4.1 Mangrove Forests are the Richest and Most Biodiverse Ecosystems on Earth 24112.4.2 Aquaculture: Shrimp and Fish Cultivation 24212.4.3 Protection from Natural Disasters: Mangroves Act as Natural Bioshields Against Natural Disasters 24212.4.4 Medicinal Value of Mangroves 24312.5 Threats to Mangroves 24312.5.1 Human Settlements and Other Developmental Activities 24412.5.2 Excessive Extraction of Wood 24512.5.3 Conversion of Mangrove Forests for Farming and Related Activities 24512.5.4 Conversion of Mangrove Forests for Aquaculture 24512.5.5 Global Warming, Climate Change, and Sea Level Rise 24612.5.6 Limits to Landward Movement 24612.5.7 El Niño and La Niña Events 24712.6 Strategies for the Conservation of Mangroves 24712.6.1 Increased and Focused Research on Understanding Mangroves 24712.6.2 Implementation of Mangrove Conservation‐Related Laws, Guidelines, and Other Initiatives 24712.6.3 Strengthening Conservation Mechanisms 25112.6.4 Targeting Land Ownership‐Related Issues 25112.6.5 Involvement of Local Communities 25112.7 Conclusion 252Acknowledgments 253References 25313 Wetland Conservation and Restoration 27213.1 Introduction 27213.2 Wetlands: Role and Importance 27413.3 Wetland Loss Leading to Ecological Imbalance 27513.4 Wetland Management Strategies: Current Status 27713.5 Wetland Restoration and Sustainability 28013.5.1 4th Ramsar Strategic Plan 2016–2024 (Source: Ramsar Secretariat 2016) 28013.6 Conclusion 281Acknowledgments 281References 281Index 285

Dr Sanjeev Sharma has been teaching as an Assistant Professor in the Centre for Study of Regional Development, School of Social Science and Concurrent Faculty in the Special Centre for E-Learning at Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi-India. He is also Assistant Director, UGC-HRDC-JNU, New Delhi. Over the past one and half decades he has worked in different academic and research institute viz. Dr. H.S. Gour Central University of Sagar, IISER, Mohali, WWF-India and G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE). He has done M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D. (HPU, Shimla) Post Doctorate (IISER, Mohali) and PG Diploma in Environmental Law and Policy (NLU, Delhi). His research expertise in human ecology; wetlands conservation; environmental impact assessment & management; policy planning and nature conservation; science society and nature study etc. He was awarded first Dr. Saminderjeet Singh Young Geographers National Awrard for 2011 by Association of Punjab Geographers, Post Doc. Fellow from UGC & IISER, Mohali and UNESCO-IHE Fellowship. Presently he is an External Expert Member in the Himachal Pradesh State Wetlands Authority, Govt. of Himachal Pradesh. He has more than 35 international and national publications to his credit.Dr Pardeep Singh is presently working as an Assistant Professor (Department of Environmental Science, PGDAV College, University of Delhi New Delhi India). He obtained his Masters degree from Department of Environmental Science Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi India and doctorate from Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) Varanasi. He has published more than 65 papers in the international journals in the fields of various environmental emerging issues. He has edited more than 30 books with various international publishers like Springer, Elsevier, CRC and Wiley.

• Preface xiii         List of Contributors xvii1 Global Wetlands: Categorization, Distribution and Global Scenario 11.1 Wetlands Definition, Categorization and Classification Criteria 11.1.1 Wetlands- Categorization and Classification 31.1.2 Human- Made Wetlands 51.2 Importance of Wetland Ecosystem 51.3 Spatial Distribution and Potential of Global Wetlands 71.4 Status and Impacts on the Wetlands Ecosystem 81.4.1 Conservation Measures and Future Strategies 101.4.2 Conclusion and Recommendation 11Acknowledgements 13References 132 Ramsar Convention: History, Structure, Operations, and Relevance 172.1 Background 172.2 The Ramsar Convention 182.3 The Convention Text 192.4 Wetland Definition and Classification 192.5 Mission of the Convention 222.6 Structural Framework of the Convention 222.7 Operational Framework of the Convention 252.7.1 Convention Membership 252.7.2 Ramsar Regions 262.7.3 National Ramsar Committees 302.7.4 The Montreux Record 312.7.5 Ramsar Strategic Plan 312.7.6 Three Pillars of Ramsar Convention 312.7.7 The Convention Budget 322.8 External Partnerships and Synergies 332.9 Education and Outreach 352.9.1 Communication, Education, Participation, and Awareness (CEPA) 352.9.2 World Wetlands Day 362.10 Legal Status 362.11 Effectiveness of the Convention 37References 383 Ecological Importance of Wetland Systems 403.1 Introduction 403.2 Importance of Wetlands in Flood Control 403.3 Role of Wetlands in Groundwater Replenishment 413.4 Role of Wetlands in Stabilization and Storm Protection of Shorelines 423.5 Role of Wetlands in Sediment and Nutrient Retention 433.6 Role of Wetlands in Water Purification 443.7 Biodiversity of Wetlands 453.8 Wetland Products 463.9 Sociocultural Values of Wetlands 463.10 Wetlands in Relation to Recreation and Tourism 473.11 Wetland and Climate Change 483.12 Summary 49Acknowledgments 50References 504 Ecological and Societal Importance of Wetlands: A Case Study of North Bihar (India) 554.1 Introduction 554.2 Geographical and District-Wise Distribution of Wetlands in North Bihar 584.2.1 Kabartal 604.2.2 Baraila Jheel 604.2.3 Kusheshwar Asthan 624.2.4 Jagatpur Wetland 624.2.5 Moti Jheel 634.2.6 Gogabeel Pakshi Vihar 644.3 Wetlands: Promoters of Sustainable Livelihood and Services 644.4 North Bihar Wetland Biodiversity: Status and Role 654.5 Urbanization, Pollution, and Climate Change Impacts 714.6 Legal Framework, Policies, and Challenges 774.7 Conclusion 79Acknowledgments 80References 805 Recognizing Economic Values of Wetland Ecosystem Services: A Study of Emerging Role of Monetary Evaluation of Chandubi Ecosystem and Biodiversity 875.1 Introduction 875.2 Methodology of Ecosystem Valuation 905.2.1 Market Prices – Revealed Willingness to Pay 905.2.1.1 Market Price Method 915.2.1.2 Productivity Method 915.2.1.3 Hedonic Pricing Method 925.2.1.4 Travel Cost Method 935.2.2 Circumstantial Evidence – Imputed Willingness to Pay 945.2.2.1 Damage Cost Avoided, Replacement Cost, and Substitute Cost Methods 945.2.3 Surveys – Expressed Willingness to Pay 955.2.3.1 Contingent Valuation Method 955.2.3.2 Contingent Choice Method 965.3 Ecosystem Services of Wetland 975.4 Chandubi Wetland: Introduction, Impact, and Introspection 975.5 Scaling up Wetland Conservation, Wise Use, and Restoration for Achieving Sustainable Development Goals 1035.6 Wetlands’ Role in Achieving SDGs 1045.7 Conclusion 108Acknowledgments 109References 1096 Ecosystem Services of Lagoon Wetlands System in India 1116.1 Introduction 1116.2 Chilika Lagoon 1126.3 Ecosystem Services Provided by Chilika Lagoon 1126.3.1 Provisioning Services 1146.3.1.1 Commercial Fisheries 1146.3.1.2 Other Flora and Fauna of Chilika Lagoon 1146.3.1.3 Navigation 1156.3.2 Regulating Services 1156.3.3 Cultural Services 1166.3.4 Supporting Services 1166.4 Threats and Management of Chilika Lagoon 1176.5 Pulicat Lagoon 1186.6 Ecosystem Services Provided by Pulicat Lagoon 1196.6.1 Provisioning Services 1196.6.1.1 Fisheries in Pulicat 1196.6.2 Aquatic Flora and Fauna of Pulicat 1206.6.3 Regulatory Services Provided by Pulicat Lagoon 1206.6.4 Historical and Cultural Importance of Pulicat Lagoon 1206.6.5 Supporting Services Provided by Pulicat Lagoon 1216.6.6 Threats and Management of Pulicat Lagoon 1216.7 Conclusion 123Acknowledgments 124References 1247 Sustainable Practices for Conservation of Wetland Ecosystem 1297.1 Introduction 1297.2 Role of Wetlands in the Ecosystem 1307.3 Challenges to Conserve Wetlands 1337.4 Wetland Management and Sustainable Development 1347.5 Future Strategies for Wetland Conservation 1357.6 Development of the Legal Framework 1357.7 Technology Intervention with Baseline Data for Wetland Conservation 1367.8 Development of National Action Plans 1367.9 Promotion of Research for Conservation Setup 1367.10 Conclusion 136References 1378 Assessing the Benefits, Threats and Conservation of Reservoir-Based Wetlands in the Eastern Himalayan River Basin 1408.1 Introduction 1408.1.1 RBWs’ Significance and Ignorance 1418.1.2 RBWs in India 1428.1.3 The RBWs in the Eastern Himalayas 1438.2 The RBWs in the Tista Basin 1448.3 Benefits of Reservoirs as Wetland 1458.3.1 Ecosystem Services Provided by the RBWs 1458.4 Assessment of Ecosystem Services in the Tista Basin Provided by the RBWs 1478.5 Adverse Impact of RBWs 1498.5.1 Construction and Function of RBWs Across the World 1498.5.2 Adverse Impact of RBWs in the Eastern Himalayas 1498.6 Assessment of Impact on the Tista basin 1508.7 Potential Challenges and Threats to RBW 1528.7.1 Anthropogenic Activities 1528.7.2 Variations in Water Level 1538.8 Climate Change 1538.9 Management and Conservation of RBWs 1548.10 Conclusion 155References 1569 Spatiotemporal Evaluation of Causes and Consequences of Wetland Degradation 1629.1 Introduction 1629.2 Classification of Wetlands 1629.3 Causes of and Consequence of Wetland Degradation 1649.3.1 Natural Causes 1649.3.1.1 Storms Surge 1659.3.1.2 Disintegration of Barrier Islands 1659.3.1.3 Flooding and Salinization 1659.3.1.4 Herbivory 1669.3.1.5 Climate Change 1669.3.1.6 Major Shifts in a River’s Course 1669.3.2 Anthropogenic Causes of Wetland Loss 1669.3.2.1 Infrastructure Development 1679.3.2.2 Land Conversion 1679.3.2.3 Water Withdrawal 1689.3.2.4 Eutrophication and Pollution 1689.3.2.5 Overharvesting and Overexploitation 1689.3.2.6 Introduction of Invasive Species 1689.3.2.7 Others 1699.4 Consequences of Wetland Loss 1709.4.1 Loss of Biodiversity 1709.4.2 Decrease in Water Level 1719.4.3 Loss of Habitat 1719.4.4 Climate Change 1719.4.5 Emission of Greenhouse Gases 1719.4.6 Erosion of River Delta 172References 17210 The Status of Current Knowledge, Distribution, and Conservation Challenges of Wetland Ecosystems in Kashmir Himalaya, India 17510.1 Introduction 17510.2 Wetlands Over North-Western Kashmir Himalaya 17610.2.1 Current Status 17610.2.2 Wetland Classification 17810.2.2.1 High Altitude Wetlands (HAWs) 18210.2.2.2 Mid-Altitude Wetlands (MAWs) 18210.2.3 Wetland Distribution and Extent in Kashmir Himalaya 18210.3 Wetland Functions and Values 18410.3.1 Regulatory functions 18410.3.1.1 Regulation of Global Climate 18410.3.1.2 Groundwater Recharge and Discharge 18410.3.1.3 Water Purification 18510.3.1.4 Natural Hazard and Flood Control 18510.3.1.5 Sediment Retention 18510.3.2 Provisioning Functions 18510.3.2.1 Food Resources 18510.3.2.2 Raw Materials 18610.3.2.3 Medicinal Resources 18610.3.3 Cultural Functions 18610.3.3.1 Tourism, Aesthetics, and Recreation 18610.3.3.2 Scientific and Educational Information 18610.3.4 Supporting Functions 18710.3.4.1 Biodiversity Habitats 18710.3.4.2 Nutrient Cycling 18710.3.5 Economic Values 18710.4 Drivers of Wetland Degradation 18710.4.1 Land System Changes 18810.4.2 Pollution 18910.4.3 Floating Agriculture 19010.4.4 Siltation 19010.4.5 Roads and Railways 19010.4.6 Plantations 19010.4.7 Overexploitation 19110.4.8 Weed Infestation 19110.4.9 Hunting and Poaching 19110.4.10 Land Reclamation 19110.5 Wetland Conservation in Kashmir Himalaya 19110.5.1 Legal Framework 19210.5.2 Conservation Challenges 19310.5.3 Conservation Strategies 19310.5.4 Knowledge Gaps 19310.6 Conclusion 195Acknowledgments 195References 19511 Heavy Metal Pollution in Coastal Environment and Its Remediation Using Mangroves: An Eco-sustainable Approach 20111.1 Introduction 20111.2 Pollution in Mangrove Habitats: A Global Concern 20211.3 Heavy Metal Cycling in the Mangrove Ecosystem 20311.4 Heavy Metal Transport, Uptake, and Release 20411.5 Bioavailability and Concentration of Heavy Metals in the Sediments 20411.6 Factors Affecting Heavy Metals in the Sediment 20511.7 Heavy Metal Accumulation in Mangrove Plants 21011.8 Heavy Metal Remediation Potential of Mangroves 21011.9 Distribution of Heavy Metals in Different Plant Tissues of Mangrove Species 21411.10 Application of Phytoremediation to Coastal Pollution Remediation 21411.10.1 Phytoremediation Using Constructed Wetlands (CWs) Technology 21411.10.2 Phytoremediation Using Constructed Floating Bed 21611.11 Eco-remediation Technologies as Sustainable Natural Treatment Systems for Waste Water Treatment 21711.12 Conclusion and Future Prospects 217References 21812 Mangrove Forests: Distribution, Species Diversity, Roles, Threats and Conservation Strategies 22912.1 Introduction 22912.2 Mangrove Species Diversity 23012.3 Geographical Distribution of Mangroves Across the Globe and India 23712.4 Important Roles of Mangroves 23712.4.1 Mangrove Forests are the Richest and Most Biodiverse Ecosystems on Earth 24112.4.2 Aquaculture: Shrimp and Fish Cultivation 24212.4.3 Protection from Natural Disasters: Mangroves Act as Natural Bioshields Against Natural Disasters 24212.4.4 Medicinal Value of Mangroves 24312.5 Threats to Mangroves 24312.5.1 Human Settlements and Other Developmental Activities 24412.5.2 Excessive Extraction of Wood 24512.5.3 Conversion of Mangrove Forests for Farming and Related Activities 24512.5.4 Conversion of Mangrove Forests for Aquaculture 24512.5.5 Global Warming, Climate Change, and Sea Level Rise 24612.5.6 Limits to Landward Movement 24612.5.7 El Niño and La Niña Events 24712.6 Strategies for the Conservation of Mangroves 24712.6.1 Increased and Focused Research on Understanding Mangroves 24712.6.2 Implementation of Mangrove Conservation‐Related Laws, Guidelines, and Other Initiatives 24712.6.3 Strengthening Conservation Mechanisms 25112.6.4 Targeting Land Ownership‐Related Issues 25112.6.5 Involvement of Local Communities 25112.7 Conclusion 252Acknowledgments 253References 25313 Wetland Conservation and Restoration 27213.1 Introduction 27213.2 Wetlands: Role and Importance 27413.3 Wetland Loss Leading to Ecological Imbalance 27513.4 Wetland Management Strategies: Current Status 27713.5 Wetland Restoration and Sustainability 28013.5.1 4th Ramsar Strategic Plan 2016–2024 (Source: Ramsar Secretariat 2016) 28013.6 Conclusion 281Acknowledgments 281References 281Index 285

Dr Sanjeev Sharma has been teaching as an Assistant Professor in the Centre for Study of Regional Development, School of Social Science and Concurrent Faculty in the Special Centre for E-Learning at Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi-India. He is also Assistant Director, UGC-HRDC-JNU, New Delhi. Over the past one and half decades he has worked in different academic and research institute viz. Dr. H.S. Gour Central University of Sagar, IISER, Mohali, WWF-India and G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE). He has done M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D. (HPU, Shimla) Post Doctorate (IISER, Mohali) and PG Diploma in Environmental Law and Policy (NLU, Delhi). His research expertise in human ecology; wetlands conservation; environmental impact assessment & management; policy planning and nature conservation; science society and nature study etc. He was awarded first Dr. Saminderjeet Singh Young Geographers National Awrard for 2011 by Association of Punjab Geographers, Post Doc. Fellow from UGC & IISER, Mohali and UNESCO-IHE Fellowship. Presently he is an External Expert Member in the Himachal Pradesh State Wetlands Authority, Govt. of Himachal Pradesh. He has more than 35 international and national publications to his credit.Dr Pardeep Singh is presently working as an Assistant Professor (Department of Environmental Science, PGDAV College, University of Delhi New Delhi India). He obtained his Masters degree from Department of Environmental Science Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi India and doctorate from Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) Varanasi. He has published more than 65 papers in the international journals in the fields of various environmental emerging issues. He has edited more than 30 books with various international publishers like Springer, Elsevier, CRC and Wiley.

• Preface xiii         List of Contributors xvii1 Global Wetlands: Categorization, Distribution and Global Scenario 11.1 Wetlands Definition, Categorization and Classification Criteria 11.1.1 Wetlands- Categorization and Classification 31.1.2 Human- Made Wetlands 51.2 Importance of Wetland Ecosystem 51.3 Spatial Distribution and Potential of Global Wetlands 71.4 Status and Impacts on the Wetlands Ecosystem 81.4.1 Conservation Measures and Future Strategies 101.4.2 Conclusion and Recommendation 11Acknowledgements 13References 132 Ramsar Convention: History, Structure, Operations, and Relevance 172.1 Background 172.2 The Ramsar Convention 182.3 The Convention Text 192.4 Wetland Definition and Classification 192.5 Mission of the Convention 222.6 Structural Framework of the Convention 222.7 Operational Framework of the Convention 252.7.1 Convention Membership 252.7.2 Ramsar Regions 262.7.3 National Ramsar Committees 302.7.4 The Montreux Record 312.7.5 Ramsar Strategic Plan 312.7.6 Three Pillars of Ramsar Convention 312.7.7 The Convention Budget 322.8 External Partnerships and Synergies 332.9 Education and Outreach 352.9.1 Communication, Education, Participation, and Awareness (CEPA) 352.9.2 World Wetlands Day 362.10 Legal Status 362.11 Effectiveness of the Convention 37References 383 Ecological Importance of Wetland Systems 403.1 Introduction 403.2 Importance of Wetlands in Flood Control 403.3 Role of Wetlands in Groundwater Replenishment 413.4 Role of Wetlands in Stabilization and Storm Protection of Shorelines 423.5 Role of Wetlands in Sediment and Nutrient Retention 433.6 Role of Wetlands in Water Purification 443.7 Biodiversity of Wetlands 453.8 Wetland Products 463.9 Sociocultural Values of Wetlands 463.10 Wetlands in Relation to Recreation and Tourism 473.11 Wetland and Climate Change 483.12 Summary 49Acknowledgments 50References 504 Ecological and Societal Importance of Wetlands: A Case Study of North Bihar (India) 554.1 Introduction 554.2 Geographical and District-Wise Distribution of Wetlands in North Bihar 584.2.1 Kabartal 604.2.2 Baraila Jheel 604.2.3 Kusheshwar Asthan 624.2.4 Jagatpur Wetland 624.2.5 Moti Jheel 634.2.6 Gogabeel Pakshi Vihar 644.3 Wetlands: Promoters of Sustainable Livelihood and Services 644.4 North Bihar Wetland Biodiversity: Status and Role 654.5 Urbanization, Pollution, and Climate Change Impacts 714.6 Legal Framework, Policies, and Challenges 774.7 Conclusion 79Acknowledgments 80References 805 Recognizing Economic Values of Wetland Ecosystem Services: A Study of Emerging Role of Monetary Evaluation of Chandubi Ecosystem and Biodiversity 875.1 Introduction 875.2 Methodology of Ecosystem Valuation 905.2.1 Market Prices – Revealed Willingness to Pay 905.2.1.1 Market Price Method 915.2.1.2 Productivity Method 915.2.1.3 Hedonic Pricing Method 925.2.1.4 Travel Cost Method 935.2.2 Circumstantial Evidence – Imputed Willingness to Pay 945.2.2.1 Damage Cost Avoided, Replacement Cost, and Substitute Cost Methods 945.2.3 Surveys – Expressed Willingness to Pay 955.2.3.1 Contingent Valuation Method 955.2.3.2 Contingent Choice Method 965.3 Ecosystem Services of Wetland 975.4 Chandubi Wetland: Introduction, Impact, and Introspection 975.5 Scaling up Wetland Conservation, Wise Use, and Restoration for Achieving Sustainable Development Goals 1035.6 Wetlands’ Role in Achieving SDGs 1045.7 Conclusion 108Acknowledgments 109References 1096 Ecosystem Services of Lagoon Wetlands System in India 1116.1 Introduction 1116.2 Chilika Lagoon 1126.3 Ecosystem Services Provided by Chilika Lagoon 1126.3.1 Provisioning Services 1146.3.1.1 Commercial Fisheries 1146.3.1.2 Other Flora and Fauna of Chilika Lagoon 1146.3.1.3 Navigation 1156.3.2 Regulating Services 1156.3.3 Cultural Services 1166.3.4 Supporting Services 1166.4 Threats and Management of Chilika Lagoon 1176.5 Pulicat Lagoon 1186.6 Ecosystem Services Provided by Pulicat Lagoon 1196.6.1 Provisioning Services 1196.6.1.1 Fisheries in Pulicat 1196.6.2 Aquatic Flora and Fauna of Pulicat 1206.6.3 Regulatory Services Provided by Pulicat Lagoon 1206.6.4 Historical and Cultural Importance of Pulicat Lagoon 1206.6.5 Supporting Services Provided by Pulicat Lagoon 1216.6.6 Threats and Management of Pulicat Lagoon 1216.7 Conclusion 123Acknowledgments 124References 1247 Sustainable Practices for Conservation of Wetland Ecosystem 1297.1 Introduction 1297.2 Role of Wetlands in the Ecosystem 1307.3 Challenges to Conserve Wetlands 1337.4 Wetland Management and Sustainable Development 1347.5 Future Strategies for Wetland Conservation 1357.6 Development of the Legal Framework 1357.7 Technology Intervention with Baseline Data for Wetland Conservation 1367.8 Development of National Action Plans 1367.9 Promotion of Research for Conservation Setup 1367.10 Conclusion 136References 1378 Assessing the Benefits, Threats and Conservation of Reservoir-Based Wetlands in the Eastern Himalayan River Basin 1408.1 Introduction 1408.1.1 RBWs’ Significance and Ignorance 1418.1.2 RBWs in India 1428.1.3 The RBWs in the Eastern Himalayas 1438.2 The RBWs in the Tista Basin 1448.3 Benefits of Reservoirs as Wetland 1458.3.1 Ecosystem Services Provided by the RBWs 1458.4 Assessment of Ecosystem Services in the Tista Basin Provided by the RBWs 1478.5 Adverse Impact of RBWs 1498.5.1 Construction and Function of RBWs Across the World 1498.5.2 Adverse Impact of RBWs in the Eastern Himalayas 1498.6 Assessment of Impact on the Tista basin 1508.7 Potential Challenges and Threats to RBW 1528.7.1 Anthropogenic Activities 1528.7.2 Variations in Water Level 1538.8 Climate Change 1538.9 Management and Conservation of RBWs 1548.10 Conclusion 155References 1569 Spatiotemporal Evaluation of Causes and Consequences of Wetland Degradation 1629.1 Introduction 1629.2 Classification of Wetlands 1629.3 Causes of and Consequence of Wetland Degradation 1649.3.1 Natural Causes 1649.3.1.1 Storms Surge 1659.3.1.2 Disintegration of Barrier Islands 1659.3.1.3 Flooding and Salinization 1659.3.1.4 Herbivory 1669.3.1.5 Climate Change 1669.3.1.6 Major Shifts in a River’s Course 1669.3.2 Anthropogenic Causes of Wetland Loss 1669.3.2.1 Infrastructure Development 1679.3.2.2 Land Conversion 1679.3.2.3 Water Withdrawal 1689.3.2.4 Eutrophication and Pollution 1689.3.2.5 Overharvesting and Overexploitation 1689.3.2.6 Introduction of Invasive Species 1689.3.2.7 Others 1699.4 Consequences of Wetland Loss 1709.4.1 Loss of Biodiversity 1709.4.2 Decrease in Water Level 1719.4.3 Loss of Habitat 1719.4.4 Climate Change 1719.4.5 Emission of Greenhouse Gases 1719.4.6 Erosion of River Delta 172References 17210 The Status of Current Knowledge, Distribution, and Conservation Challenges of Wetland Ecosystems in Kashmir Himalaya, India 17510.1 Introduction 17510.2 Wetlands Over North-Western Kashmir Himalaya 17610.2.1 Current Status 17610.2.2 Wetland Classification 17810.2.2.1 High Altitude Wetlands (HAWs) 18210.2.2.2 Mid-Altitude Wetlands (MAWs) 18210.2.3 Wetland Distribution and Extent in Kashmir Himalaya 18210.3 Wetland Functions and Values 18410.3.1 Regulatory functions 18410.3.1.1 Regulation of Global Climate 18410.3.1.2 Groundwater Recharge and Discharge 18410.3.1.3 Water Purification 18510.3.1.4 Natural Hazard and Flood Control 18510.3.1.5 Sediment Retention 18510.3.2 Provisioning Functions 18510.3.2.1 Food Resources 18510.3.2.2 Raw Materials 18610.3.2.3 Medicinal Resources 18610.3.3 Cultural Functions 18610.3.3.1 Tourism, Aesthetics, and Recreation 18610.3.3.2 Scientific and Educational Information 18610.3.4 Supporting Functions 18710.3.4.1 Biodiversity Habitats 18710.3.4.2 Nutrient Cycling 18710.3.5 Economic Values 18710.4 Drivers of Wetland Degradation 18710.4.1 Land System Changes 18810.4.2 Pollution 18910.4.3 Floating Agriculture 19010.4.4 Siltation 19010.4.5 Roads and Railways 19010.4.6 Plantations 19010.4.7 Overexploitation 19110.4.8 Weed Infestation 19110.4.9 Hunting and Poaching 19110.4.10 Land Reclamation 19110.5 Wetland Conservation in Kashmir Himalaya 19110.5.1 Legal Framework 19210.5.2 Conservation Challenges 19310.5.3 Conservation Strategies 19310.5.4 Knowledge Gaps 19310.6 Conclusion 195Acknowledgments 195References 19511 Heavy Metal Pollution in Coastal Environment and Its Remediation Using Mangroves: An Eco-sustainable Approach 20111.1 Introduction 20111.2 Pollution in Mangrove Habitats: A Global Concern 20211.3 Heavy Metal Cycling in the Mangrove Ecosystem 20311.4 Heavy Metal Transport, Uptake, and Release 20411.5 Bioavailability and Concentration of Heavy Metals in the Sediments 20411.6 Factors Affecting Heavy Metals in the Sediment 20511.7 Heavy Metal Accumulation in Mangrove Plants 21011.8 Heavy Metal Remediation Potential of Mangroves 21011.9 Distribution of Heavy Metals in Different Plant Tissues of Mangrove Species 21411.10 Application of Phytoremediation to Coastal Pollution Remediation 21411.10.1 Phytoremediation Using Constructed Wetlands (CWs) Technology 21411.10.2 Phytoremediation Using Constructed Floating Bed 21611.11 Eco-remediation Technologies as Sustainable Natural Treatment Systems for Waste Water Treatment 21711.12 Conclusion and Future Prospects 217References 21812 Mangrove Forests: Distribution, Species Diversity, Roles, Threats and Conservation Strategies 22912.1 Introduction 22912.2 Mangrove Species Diversity 23012.3 Geographical Distribution of Mangroves Across the Globe and India 23712.4 Important Roles of Mangroves 23712.4.1 Mangrove Forests are the Richest and Most Biodiverse Ecosystems on Earth 24112.4.2 Aquaculture: Shrimp and Fish Cultivation 24212.4.3 Protection from Natural Disasters: Mangroves Act as Natural Bioshields Against Natural Disasters 24212.4.4 Medicinal Value of Mangroves 24312.5 Threats to Mangroves 24312.5.1 Human Settlements and Other Developmental Activities 24412.5.2 Excessive Extraction of Wood 24512.5.3 Conversion of Mangrove Forests for Farming and Related Activities 24512.5.4 Conversion of Mangrove Forests for Aquaculture 24512.5.5 Global Warming, Climate Change, and Sea Level Rise 24612.5.6 Limits to Landward Movement 24612.5.7 El Niño and La Niña Events 24712.6 Strategies for the Conservation of Mangroves 24712.6.1 Increased and Focused Research on Understanding Mangroves 24712.6.2 Implementation of Mangrove Conservation‐Related Laws, Guidelines, and Other Initiatives 24712.6.3 Strengthening Conservation Mechanisms 25112.6.4 Targeting Land Ownership‐Related Issues 25112.6.5 Involvement of Local Communities 25112.7 Conclusion 252Acknowledgments 253References 25313 Wetland Conservation and Restoration 27213.1 Introduction 27213.2 Wetlands: Role and Importance 27413.3 Wetland Loss Leading to Ecological Imbalance 27513.4 Wetland Management Strategies: Current Status 27713.5 Wetland Restoration and Sustainability 28013.5.1 4th Ramsar Strategic Plan 2016–2024 (Source: Ramsar Secretariat 2016) 28013.6 Conclusion 281Acknowledgments 281References 281Index 285